7

Christian narratives of origin

The creation of new origin narratives

At the beginning of the twentieth century, the origin narratives of the Rotenese began a new creative phase, developing new narrative forms drawn from the Christian scriptures. These Christian narratives reflected social changes that had been occurring for centuries on the island. The creation and recitation of these Christian narratives required new semantic categories for their expression. They led to new avenues of expression and produced a new generation of poet–preachers. These new narratives did not replace older origin narratives but developed alongside them. Both the new and the older narratives continued the fundamental Rotenese concern with ‘origins’ as a primary means of achieving knowledge and understanding. These new narratives were the creative development of Rotenese efforts to incorporate Christianity within their cultural traditions.

Baptisms as a record of Christian conversion

Unlike the Portuguese who preceded them in eastern Indonesia, the Dutch East India Company made no explicit effort in the spread of Christianity and the conversion of the native populations with whom they engaged and traded. The Company was, however, committed to maintaining Dutch Reformed Christianity among its officers and its increasingly diverse European contingent of serving members, including its military, and those with whom they became individually involved. This was a commitment to morality and to an explicit social order. As a result, the Company came to accommodate native conversion and systematically recorded those who sought to become Christian.¹

The Company’s first attempt to assert its interests in eastern Indonesia came in 1613 when it besieged and eventually overran a Portuguese fortification on the island of Solor. The siege of some three months allowed most of the Solor fort’s Christian population to escape to Larantuka at the eastern end of Flores, which became a local stronghold that the Dutch were never able to overwhelm. On several occasions, the Company provisioned and held a small fort, known as Henricus, on Solor but eventually chose, in 1651, to situate its operations in the bay of Kupang on the island of Timor, where they built a new fort that they named Concordia.

Surviving Company archives from Solor record marriages and baptisms at Fort Henricus from 1621 to 1629 for the motley mix of its inhabitants made up mainly of Company soldiery, generally of corporal rank, who married with local women from various islands, and their children, who were baptised as reformed Christians. A more complete ‘Company Baptismal Register’ (Doop Boek van Timor) covering 1669 to 1732 has survived in the Dutch archives and records the baptisms of individuals over this period, initially mainly the children and wives of women who married Dutch soldiers and officers. Among those whose baptisms are recorded are the names of the first Rotenese who converted to Christianity.

An entry for the initial date of this Company Register, 3 March 1669, records the baptism of a Maria from the domain of Korbaffo on Rote, who was married to Marcus Daneilzoon, along with their children, Jannetje and Maria, witnessed by Jacob Pieterszoon van den Kerper and Aaltje Paats. Although not all entries are as complete, this initial pattern appears to have been repeated. In some cases, children are registered under their father’s name, but no mention is made of their mothers. Similarly, women’s names are registered—such as ‘Maria of Dengka’ and ‘Catherina of Diu’—in 1673 but with no mention of possible husbands. Various entries record baptisms only when children have been born in a marriage. Thus, for example, in 1677, a ‘Maria of Rote’ is recorded as married to Leender Welke when their son, Willem, is baptised. Similarly, Catherina of Diu is reported as married to Jacob Cruksang when their daughter was baptised in 1687.

The names of the first Rotenese men to be baptised appear in 1673: ‘Jacob of Termanu’, ‘Reijnout of Bilba’, ‘Johannes of Ringgou’ and ‘Pieter of Dengka’. The baptism of the first Rotenese couple, ‘Isaak of Termanu’ and ‘Christina of Dengka’, with their children, David, Willem and Catherina, is registered in 1675. Included also in the Register are the baptisms of the various children of the unbaptised ‘Anica of Rote’ and ‘Appolonia of Dengka’, each with a succession of different Dutch company officers.

This slow trickle of occasional Rotenese baptisms continued over successive decades but only became politically significant when the members of Rotenese ruling families were baptised. The first of these baptisms occurred on 26 May 1720, when the 10-year-old son of the ruler of Thie was baptised, taking the name Benjamin. Eight years later, on 23 May 1728, the ruler of Thie, Poura Messa, was baptised by the Dominee Aaron Dias d’Fonseca, who also served as his witness. As a mark of respect for the Dominee who baptised him, Poura Messa took the baptismal name Aaron. He was baptised along with his wife, Geertruijda Heno, and his other children: 1) Maria, who was six months old, 2) Antonia, who was four years old; 3) Rehobeam, who was five years old; and 4) Timotheus, who was seven.

At this same ceremony, Tobias, a son of the Radja of Korbaffo, and Daniel, the 10-year-old son of the Radja of Loleh, were also baptised. In the same year, on 15 August 1728, the six-year-old son of the Radja of Bilba was baptised, taking the name Rennet, as was the infant son of the Radja of Landu, who took the name Johannes. Four years later, on 20 April 1732, the eight-year-old son of the ruler of Termanu, Ndaomanu, was baptised and took the name Bernardus. This royal baptism was seen as politically significant and the chief officer of the East India Company in Kupang, Gerhard Bernard Visscher, served as a witness.²

Of these royal baptisms, that of Poura Messa’s son Benjamin proved to have the greatest significance. At the time of his father’s baptism, Benjamin was 18 years old. Within a few years, following the death of his father, he became the ruler of Thie and claimed a higher status than the unbaptised ruler of Termanu, whom he opposed. He insisted on the establishment of a school in his domain to teach Malay as a vehicle for understanding the Malay Bible. As a consequence of his important initial efforts, Benjamin Mesak, known as Foe Mbura, has become recognised, and indeed mythologised, in Rotenese representations of the quest for Christianity.³

Malay as the vehicle for schooling and Christianity

Dutch historical records chart this fitful quest for Christianity from the time of Mbura Mesa in 1728 into the early twentieth century.⁴ The creation of local Malay schools in various domains across the island was a notable achievement in the eighteenth century, but it came at a price. Each domain had to pay for its schoolteacher, drawn initially and mainly from Malay speakers from the island of Ambon, with a levy of mung beans to support the Dutch in their beleaguered fort at Kupang. Within a generation, most of these outsider-teachers were replaced with Rotenese who had graduated from local schools and the schooling could be continued at a lower cost. During this period and afterwards, a close, almost inseparable association was established between the Malay language and Christianity, creating in each domain an elite cohort of Malay-speaking Christians.

In the nineteenth century, when the Dutch East Indies Government replaced the Company after a brief British interlude, this association persisted. Because Rote was unique in the Timor area in its rulers’ adoption of Malay and of Christianity, it became the focus of initial Dutch efforts by the Netherlands Mission Society (Nederlandsche Zending Genootschap).

The first Dutch missionary, Dr R. Le Bruijn, arrived in Kupang in 1819. From his base there, Le Bruijn revived the faltering Rotenese school system. By 1825, he had re-established local schools in eight domains including Thie and Termanu, staffing these schools with Rotenese teachers. Le Bruijn’s appointee J.K. ter Linden was the first missionary to take up residence on Rote, locating himself in Thie. But within a year, ter Linden closed all the schools Le Bruijn had established ‘on account of the shameful and godless conduct of the instructors’ and withdrew to Kupang. Within a decade, the missionary G. Heijmering, who remained in Kupang, reopened these schools, increasing their number to ten. Heijmering also succeeded in baptising the ruler of Termanu and was able to open the first church in this domain in 1849—more than a century after the conversion of the ruler of Thie.

This fitful but exclusive mission support of Rotenese schools ended in 1851. By this time, Dutch school inspector S.N. Buddingh, who visited Rote in 1855 and declared ‘the Rotenese a studious, clever and intelligent people and from an intellectual as well as moral point of view [they] deserve a place of honour among the tropical peoples’. He recommended substantial government support for the continuation of local schools in each domain. With an established annual budget to support them, by 1857, Rotenese schoolteachers became government employees. In 1871, by which time Rote’s school population had risen to 3,277 pupils, teachers who had until then been responsible for religious services on Sundays were forbidden to offer religious instruction in government schools.

Formally, the connection between Christianity and Malay-language schooling was ended; informally, the association continued. Yet another Dutch school inspector, N. Graafland, who had previously served as a missionary in the Indies, visited Rote in 1887. His views of the island were less positive than those of his predecessor.⁵ Rotenese schools, he reported, were cast in deep shade under their lontar-leaf roofs; they were poorly attended and only by Christians; and the morals of the schoolteachers were scandalous. In a population estimated at between 54,000 and 62,000, there were only 7,000 baptised Christians and there was little to distinguish them from the majority of heathens. From 1669, when the first baptism was registered for the island, to the time of Graafland’s visit in 1887, the 200 years of Christianity on Rote had produced only a small minority of Malay-speaking Christians.⁶

Gaining scriptural voice for communicating Christianity on Rote

Not long after Graafland’s visit, in 1890, yet another missionary, G.J.H. Le Grand, arrived on the island. Le Grand’s views of the state of Christianity on Rote were much like those of Graafland. As he wrote to his mission society:

If you ask me what my total impression of Rotenese Christians is, I would answer: for many, Christianity is nothing more than Sunday apparel, which they wear at certain times, while their household undergarment is made of heathen material and woven with heathen patterns.⁷

In Le Grand’s judgement, Malay had become ‘the vehicle of Christian thought’ and, as an exclusive means of transmitting Christianity, this reliance on Malay limited the spread and understanding of the religion. Instead, Le Grand promoted the use of the Rotenese language. Under his auspices, the Rotenese J. Fanggidaej translated the Gospel of Luke (Manetualain Dede’a Manemi Soda-Molek-a Lukas; 1895) into the dialect of the central Rotenese domains of Termanu, Keka and Talae. The use of a written text among a population oriented to oral recitations, combined with dialect differences on Rote, limited the usefulness of this effort. Increasingly, as evidenced in his letters, Le Grand came to understand the Rotenese language and he grasped the value of Rotenese ritual language and appreciated its underlying ideas, which he believed could be directed to the promotion of Christianity. He was particularly taken with the Suti Solo do Bina Bane recitation with its search for a place of proper abode and he used lines from a mortuary chant, Pata Dai ma Solo Suti, to illustrate to the Rotenese the idea that, in death, all of life’s accumulations count as nothing, ending his illustrative fragment with the common Rotenese ritual refrain:

Teman ta dae bafo	Perfection is not of the earth
Ma tetu ta batu poi.	And order is not of the world.8

With one period of return-leave to the Netherlands in 1899, Le Grand continued his efforts on Rote until 1907. He was appointed secretary for both government and church schools and, in 1902, was able to establish a Teachers’ Training School (School tot Opleiding van Indische Leraren, or STOVIL) that, for two decades, remained on Rote and became a focus for the training of Rotenese teachers who served both on Rote and on neighbouring islands. In 1919, a further training and examination program was established to produce salaried lay preachers known as Guru Jumaat or Utusan Injil (Goeroe Djoemat/Oetoesan Indjil) and was able to draw upon Rotenese from across the island.⁹ This combination of new schoolteachers and lay preachers, fluent in Malay but urged to preach in Rotenese, adapted and appropriated Biblical high Malay, combining it with the poetry of Rotenese ritual language to create a new ritual-language register.

The new lexicon for a Christian scriptural voice

The traditional forms of ritual language took on new relevance and became a vehicle for the transmission of Biblical knowledge alongside that of traditional knowledge. In the twentieth century as Christianity continued to develop, the role of poet–chanter merged with that of Christian preacher. To fashion and convey these new forms of knowledge, a whole new Christian theological lexicon was created in dyadic form.

An examination of some of this formulaic lexicon and its constituent dyadic sets provides an idea of its creativity in translating new ideas in traditional format.

In the dyadic set soda//molek, soda has the meaning of ‘health, life, wellbeing’, while molek has the meaning of ‘peace and security’. Fanggidaej, in his translation, appropriated this set to designate the ‘gospel’ (Soda-Molek-a Lukas). Among Christians, it came also to be applied to ‘Heaven’: Soda Daen//Molek Oen (‘Land of Wellbeing, Waters of Peace’). By implication, this rendering indicates that Heaven is the ‘Land and Waters of the Gospel’. Soda Daen//Molek Oen can also be combined with other recognised sets to form the longer and more traditional-seeming formula Kapa Sula Soda Daen//Pa-Dui Molek Oen (‘Buffalo-Horn Land of Wellbeing’//‘The Flesh and Bone Waters of Peace’). At present, the set soda//molek is used as a greeting among Christians in the Timor region.

Using the set soda//tema, Heaven can also be referred to as Nusa Soda//Ingu Tema (‘Domain of Wellbeing’//‘Land of Fullness’) or, combining two traditional dyadic sets, Heaven can be referred to as Bate Falu//Tema Sio (‘Eightfold Abundance’//‘Ninefold Fullness’).

God as the creator can be referred to in various ways. In the dialect of Landu, God as creator is Tou Mana-sula Poi//Ta’e Mana-adu Lai (‘The Man Who Inscribes the Heights [Inscriber of the Heights]’//‘The Boy Who Creates the Heavens [Creator of the Heavens]’) or, as in the dialect of Ringgou: Tou Mana-adu Ledo//Ta’e Mana-sula Bulan (‘The Man Who Created the Sun [Creator of the Sun]’//‘The Boy Who Inscribed the Moon [Inscriber of the Moon]’). These names are variations on traditional designations for divinity among the Rotenese—one of which was the Heavenly Inscriber (Mane Sulak Lai) and the other, the Earthly Creator (Mane Adu Dae).¹⁰

The Holy Spirit is referred to by a combination of traditional sets, metaphorically associated with the tie-dyeing of textiles, but linked in a distinctive way for Christian purposes: Dula Dale//Le’u Teik (‘Inside Patterner’//‘Self Marker’). A variant designation from the domain of Ringgou makes the connection with textile dyeing even more explicit: Dula Dale//Malala Funa (‘Inner Patterner’//‘Bundle Shaper’).

There are numerous ways of referring to Christ. Christ as shepherd is Tou Mana-Tada Tena//Ta’e Mana Lilo Bote (‘The Man Who Separates the Herd’//‘The Boy Who Forms the Flock’); Christ as redeemer is Mana-Soi//Mana-Tefa (‘The One Who Freed’//‘The One Who Paid’); and the risen Christ is Tou Maleo Lain//Ta’e Masafali Poin (‘The Man Who Returned to the Heavens’//‘The Boy Who Went Back to the Heights’).

Christ can also be described with metaphoric exuberance as a healer and repairer of injury:

Tou mana so sidak	Man who sews what is torn
Ta’e mana seu saik	Boy who stitches what is ripped
Seu nama-tema saik	Stitches to make whole what is ripped
Ma so naka-tetu sidak.	And sews to make complete what is torn.

Other vividly constructed metaphors abound: the cross of crucifixion is Tua Tele//Ai Nalo (‘The Bowed Lontar Palm’//‘The Upward-Facing Tree’); Golgotha is Lete Langa Duik//Puku Paku Lima (‘The Hill of the Skull’//‘The Mount of Nailed Hands’); and to repent is sale dalek//tuka teik (‘to turn the heart’//‘to change the inner self’).

These formulae are formed from familiar dyadic sets but are recognisable as Christian. Recitations based on these formulae provide a knowledge that is more often seen to complement than to contradict well-established traditional knowledge.

In 1966, just before leaving Rote, I met the last surviving member of the cohort of teachers trained at the STOVIL established by Le Grand to preach in Rotenese as well as in Malay. This was Lazaar Tioek Manu’ain. He was 78, having been born in the domain of Ba’a in 1888 and serving as both a Christian minister (pendeta) and a teacher in various parts of Rote before returning to a position as head of the main church in Ba’a. I sought him out because of his enormous reputation as a poet and preacher. He had become blind, but in the view of most Rotenese, this blindness had only increased his power as a poet–preacher. He was on his own when I visited him, and he offered me two recitations, which he patiently dictated to me because I had not brought my tape recorder. The first of these recitations was a version of Suti Solo do Bina Bane—a popular chant even for Le Grand but one with none of the ‘origin’ associations of recitations by Old Meno or Guru Pah.

The other of Old Manu’ain’s offerings to me was a beautiful recitation of a kind that I had not previously encountered. Based on the image of a cosmic tree of life, this recitation provided advice on pathways to be avoided and others to be followed. When I published a translation and commentary on Old Manu’ain’s recitation, I described it as a ‘seemingly traditional’ composition of ‘impeccable parallelism’—‘a personal attempt to create a kind of Christian cosmology’. The key passage of this admonition, with its defining Christian dyadic sets, is as follows:

Te ndana esa lido-lido lain neu	But one branch goes forward towards Heaven
Ma dape-dape ata neu	And [one branch] goes straight to the Heights.
Na musik ndanak ndia	Then take that branch
Te dala sodak nde ndia	For this is the road of wellbeing
Ma eno molik nde ndia	And this is the path of life
Fo nini o mu losa kapa sula soda daen	To bring you to the buffalo-horn land of wellbeing
Ma mu nduku pa-dui molek oen.	And to the flesh-and-bone water of life.
Dae sodak nai ndia	The land of wellbeing is there
Ma oe molik nai na	And the water of life is there,
Fo o hambu soda sio	For you will find the wellbeing of nine
Ma o hambu mole falu	And you will find the life of eight
Ma dua lolo ei	And with legs outstretched
Ma kala ifa lima	And with arms cradled on the lap
Fo ifa limam no limam	Cradle your arms on your arms
Ma lolo eim no eim.	And stretch your legs over your legs.

Recreating origins in a Christian mode

On my return to Ufa-Len in Termanu, during my second period of fieldwork in 1972–73, over a long evening’s discussion of previous recitations that I had recorded, the poet Peu Malesi told me he was prepared to reveal a new origin narrative. On my first fieldtrip in 1965–66, Malesi had provided me with my first origin narrative (Recitation I; Chapter 4) and much of Recitation VII (Chapter 4), which Old Meno went on to amplify. Malesi became a frequent visitor to Ufa-Len and was prolific in his recitation of a variety of mortuary chants.¹¹

Malesi explained that this new narrative revealed the origin of death. At its recitation and, subsequently, when I replayed my recording, there was near unanimous agreement that Malesi’s recitation was an ancestral revelation of importance. Only one schoolteacher recognised Malesi’s retelling of the story of Adam and Eve.

Peu Malesi was a thoroughgoing traditional poet—certainly not a poet–preacher—and his recitation was, in my view, an attempt to incorporate new knowledge into the traditional framework, rather than an explicit effort to create a distinctively Christian canon. For this reason, his recitation—the translation of which I have already published¹²—contains none of the key dyadic sets that are the distinctive mark of the Christian canon.

Named in accordance with its principal protagonists, this recitation is entitled Teke Telu ma Koa Hulu. In naming these protagonists, one male and one female, Malesi violated one of the basic rules of composition—a blemish that his rival, the poet Se’u Bai, immediately recognised as a serious flaw. In proper composition, double names are either male or female; they cannot be male and female. Teke Telu as male and Koa Hulu as female are a composite character—not seen in traditional compositions. This presents problems later in the recitation when Koa Hulu alone is tempted by Menge Batu//Tuna Buta (‘Rock Snake’ and ‘Eel Serpent’).

Malesi’s name for a Heavenly God is not one used in the Christian canon but one that accords with traditional usage: Lesik Lain Lelebe//Mane Ata Malua (‘Lord of the Exalted Heights’//‘Ruler of the Heavens Above’) or, more simply, Lesik Leo Poi//Mane Leo Lain (‘Lord in Heaven’//‘Ruler in the Heights’).

The passage that recounts the temptation of Koa Hulu provides a good illustration of this recitation:

Siluk ka soi dulu	Sunrise opens in the east
Do huak mai langa.	Dawn arrives at the head.
Inak Koa Hulu	The woman Koa Hulu
Neu fetu lae Menge Batu	Goes and steps on Rock Snake
Ma hange lae Tuna Buta.	And treads on Eel Serpent.
Tuna Buta natane	Eel Serpent asks
Ma Menge Batu natane:	And Rock Snake asks:
‘Singo-na nai be	‘Where is the error
Ma salan nai bei	Where is the wrong
De ta ketu do tua nasu	To pluck a leaf of the syrup tree
Ma seu boa fani oen?’	And to pick a fruit of the honey tree?’
Boe ma inak leo Koa Hulu	So, the woman Koa Hulu
Lole halana	Raises her voice
Ma selu dasin na neu:	And elevates her speech, saying:
‘Lesik Leo Poin	‘The Lord in Heaven
Ma Manek Leo Lain	And the Ruler in the Heights
Ma ana henge ne	He binds us
Ma ana bala taa, nae:	And ties us, saying:
“Boso ketu do fani oen	“Do not pluck the leaf of the honey tree
Ma seu boa tua nasu.	And do not pick the fruit of the syrup tree.
Te’e o seu boa tua nasu	If you pick the fruit of the syrup tree
Do o ketu do fani oen	Or if you pluck the leaf of the honey tree
Makaheduk nai ndia	There is sourness there
De sapu nitu nai ndia	A spirit death lies there
Makes nai ndia.	There is bitterness there.
De lalo mula nai ndia.”’	A ghostly demise lies there.”’
Boe ma Menge Batu kokolak	So, Rock Snake speaks
Ma Tuna Buta dede’ak, nae:	And the Eel Serpent converses, saying:
‘Seu boak tua nasu na	‘Pick the fruit of the syrup tree
Mandak nai ndia	For that is proper
Ma ketu do fani oe na	And pluck the leaf of the honey tree
Malole nai ndia.’	For that is good.’
Boe ma inak leo Koa Hulu	So, the woman like Koa Hulu
Seu boak tua nasu	Picks the fruit of the syrup tree
Ketu do fani eo	Plucks the leaf of the honey tree
De neni fe Teke Telu.	She takes and gives it to Teke Telu.
De leu la’a boa tua nasu	Then they eat the fruit of the syrup tree
Ma do fani oe.	And the leaf of the honey tree.

Teke Telu and Koa Hulu are called before the Lord of Heaven and, as they stand and wait, they forthrightly declare:

Ami malelak ndolu ingu	We know the rules of the land
Ma malelak lela leo.	We know the wisdom of the clan.

Koa Hulu explains what she has done, and the Lord of Heaven speaks, passing judgement upon them:

Kalau leo ndiak sona	If this is so that
O seu boak tua nasu	You picked the fruit of the syrup tree
Ma o ketu do fani oe	And you plucked the leaf of the honey tree
Na au henge ne neu o	Then I bind you
Ma bala ta neu emi	And I tie you
Loe mo late-dae	To descend into the Earth’s grave
Ma dilu mo kopa-tua.	And to go down in a lontar coffin.

This is the origin of death, which, according to the poet Malesi, is the revelation of this recitation:

Fai esa manuni	On that day
Ma ledok dua mateben	And at that time
Boe ma touk leo Teke Telu	The man like Teke Telu
Ma inak leo Koa Hulu	And the woman like Koa Hulu
Ana sapu tolomumu	He dies instantly
Ma lalo solo bebe.	And she perishes suddenly.

Significantly, this recitation also reveals the origin of the implements for burial. This narrative thus parallels Malesi’s Recitation I and others that recount the origins of the implements for the creation of fire and cooking and for the building of houses—implements for living as opposed to these implements for death and burial:

Boe ma besak ka fifilo langa	So, they fell the coffin head
Ma tati nonoli dulu	And they cut the casket top
De ala tao neu kopa tua	And they make them into a lontar coffin
Ma ala tao neu bolo dae.	And they make them into an earthen hole.
Pisa [hu] hulu dae la	The baskets for digging the earth
Boe ma ala dadi.	They originated then.
Boe ma taka huhuma tua	And the axes for cutting the lontar
Boe ala tola.	They appeared then.
Boe soe huhulu dae la	Coconut shells for scooping the earth
Boe ala dadi.	They originated then.
Boe ma besi kakali dae la	And the iron sticks for digging the earth
Boe ala dadi.	They originated then.
Hu touk-ka Teke Telu,	So, the man Teke Telu,
Ana sapu	He died
Ma inak ka Koa Hulu,	And the woman Koa Hulu,
Ana lalo.	She perished.
Besak ka pisak huhulu dae la	Thus, the baskets for scooping the earth
Ala dadi	They originated
Ma taka huhuma tua la	And the axes for cutting the lontar
Ala tola.	They appeared.

Malesi’s recitation concludes, in traditional fashion, by acknowledging the precedence of the events that he relates and by asserting the sober and often repeated recognition of human mortality that features in Rotenese ritual performances:

Nduku faik kia boe	To this very day
Ma losa ledok kia boe.	And to this very time.
Hu ala molo tunga momolok	So it is that all walk in their footsteps
Ma ala tabu tunga tatabuk	And all tread their path
Leo faik ia dalen	As on this day
Ma nduku ledok ia tein.	And at this time.

The creation of an origin narrative of the quest for Christianity

In 1905, the renowned Dutch linguist J.C.G. Jonker published a tale entitled Sanga Ndolu in Rotenese with a Dutch translation. This tale was collected and written down for Jonker by J. Fanggidaej, the Rotenese translator of the Gospel of Luke. Jonker, who, while serving as a Dutch government linguist based in Makassar, visited Kupang at some time between 1899 and 1900.¹³ The tale Sanga Ndolu was thus circulating among the Rotenese, particularly among Rotenese Christians, at the turn of the century.

Sanga Ndolu is a long tale. Although told in Termanu dialect, the succession of detailed incidents that lend it credibility derive from Thie.¹⁴ The tale purports to unfold before the arrival of the Dutch East India Company and begins with an account of Termanu’s oppression of its neighbouring domains, with the powerful ruler of Termanu forcing subjected populations to work his rice fields in Peto. The rulers of four domains—Thie, Loleh, Ba’a and Dengka—form an opposing alliance. (Dengka then decides to go its own way and this alliance is reduced to three.) The ruler of Thie decides to build a large perahu with the support of the rulers of Loleh and Ba’a. When the perahu is finished and the feasting is held to celebrate its completion, there remains the critical problem of giving the perahu a name. For a while, no name can be found. However, one of the local lords of Thie overhears a commoner child who is playing with a tiny boat, which he has named Sanga Ndolu (‘To Seek Wisdom’). He takes this name back to the ruler of Thie, who is pleased and accepts it.

The three rulers then board their perahu with all their followers. The ruler of Thie brings along 30 additional slaves. The three allied rulers have heard that the Dutch East India Company is located to the north and west but when they set sail in this direction, they are carried south to the ‘Sand Island’ (Pulu Solokaek, Pulau Pasir or Ashmore Reef), where the ruler of Thie sets a marker before departing. When they finally reach Batavia, they declare they have come to seek ‘wellbeing and peace’ (soda//molek). They explain to the Governor-General that they have come from Rote where they live in ‘gloom and darkness’ (kiu-kiu//hatu-hatu) and long for ‘light and clarity’ (mangaledo//masa’ak). The Governor-General accepts their request and gives each of them princely clothing and a staff of office. In turn, the ruler of Thie gives the Governor-General 30 slaves to serve him as his ‘children’—a gift that he accepts.

After the three rulers return, the Company establishes a post at Kota Leleuk on the north coast of Termanu to constrain Termanu’s power. Angered at these developments, the ruler of Termanu plots against the three returned rulers and the East India Company. He invites the three rulers and the Company officer to a great feast at which he tries to kill them all but succeeds only in killing the Dutch officer and the ruler of Loleh. The account of events ends at this decisive point, with the tale going on to present a succession of folk etymologies that are intended to explain the domain names of Termanu and Pada.

This tale is a complex refraction of local occurrences, conflating memories of historical events of different periods in an account that recognises the Dutch East India Company as the source of Christianity and accords agency to specific Rotenese rulers who bring the knowledge of Christianity to the island. Significantly, the core of this tale with its account of a Rotenese search for wisdom gives early evidence of an ongoing local formulation of the origins of Christianity that was further recast and refocused, in a ritual-language format, during the twentieth century.

In ritual language, the formulaic phrase sanga ndolu is paired with tunga lela. Sanga//tunga are verbs that can refer to both mental and physical efforts ‘to search, seek, hunt or stalk’. The pair ndolu//lela comprises notions of ‘wisdom, counsel, advice and knowledge’. Together, these paired phrases, translated as ‘to seek wisdom’//‘to search for knowledge’, were given specific new meanings in the Christian canon in the early nineteenth century, defining the quest for Christianity. By the late twentieth century and into the twenty-first, Sangu Ndolu//Tunga Lela, pared to its core journey and given metaphoric elaboration, became a distinctive origin narrative recounting the coming of Christianity to Rote—a narrative that has become known and is recited throughout the island.

On 1 October 1997, the Evangelical Church on Rote (Gereja Masehi Injil Timor) held a Yubileum (‘jubilee’) at Fiulain in Thie to celebrate the coming of Christianity. Included in the liturgy for this celebration was a special recitation of Sanga Ndolu ma Tunga Lela.¹⁵ This is an exemplary expression of this origin narrative. It recounts not only the quest for Christianity but also its spread throughout the island. Its scriptural voice is elegantly presented in strict parallelism.

Sanga Ndolu ma Tunga Lela

This narrative signals its Christian identity in the opening lines, first describing the sadness and unhappiness on Rote before the Holy Spirit brings forth a Heavenly message. Rote is referred to by a variant of the oldest of its ritual names, ‘Silence and Quiet’ (Lino do Ne), as the ‘Land of Silence and Waters of Quiet’ (Lino Daen//Oe Ne).

1.	Hida bei fan	At a time in the past
2.	Ma data bei don	And a period long ago
3.	Ingu manasongo nitu	The land offering to spirits
4.	Ma nusa manatangu mula	And the domains sacrificing to ghosts
5.	Soda ta nai daen	Wellbeing was not in that land
6.	Ma tema ta nai oen.	And harmony was not in those waters.
7.	De falu-ina lasakedu	The widows cry
8.	Ala lasakedu bedopo	They cry continually
9.	Ma ana-mak lamatani	And the orphans sob
10.	Ala lamatani balu-balu.	They sob steadily.
11.	Nai Lino Daen	In the Land of Silence
12.	Do Ne Oen.	Or the Waters of Quiet.
13.	Benga nafafada,	The Word is spoken,
14.	Benga neme Dula Dalek	Word from the Patterner of the Heart
15.	Ma dasi natutuda,	And the voice falls down,
16.	Dasi neme Le’u Teik:	The voice from the Fashioner of the Inner Self:
17.	‘Soda dae nai ata	‘The land of wellbeing is on High
18.	Ma mole oen nai lain.	And the waters of peace are in Heaven.
19.	Sanga dala soda	Seek the road of wellbeing
20.	Ma tunga eno molek	And follow the path of life
21.	Fo hapu soda sio	To gain the wellbeing of nine
22.	Ma hapu mole faluk	And gain the peace of eight
23.	Nai Lote daen	In the land of Rote
24.	Ma Kale oen.’	And the waters of Kale.’

Inspired by the Holy Spirit, the rulers of three small domains build a perahu and sail it to Batavia. In the first section, the Holy Spirit speaks; in the next section, the rulers speak, explaining their mission as a search for wisdom. This—the wisdom of Christianity—is represented as two species of trees, Tui Sodak//Bau Molek (the ‘Tui Tree of Wellbeing’ and the ‘Bau Tree of Peace’), which the Rotenese rulers bring back to the island. The use of the bau and tui trees to represent Christianity is an appropriation of two botanic icons from the conventions of traditional ritual poetry whose significance is elaborated on when the rulers return to Rote.

25.	Faik esa manunin	On one particular day
26.	Ma ledo dua mateben	And on a second certain time
27.	Mane dua lakabua	Two rulers gathered together
28.	Ma boko telu laesa	And three lords gathered as one
29.	Lakabua fo lamanene	Gathered together to listen
30.	Ma laesa fo lamania	And gathered as one to hear
31.	Benga neme Dula Dalek	Word of the Patterner of the Heart
32.	Ma dasi neme Le’u Teik.	And the voice of the Fashioner of the Inner Self.
33.	Ita lakabua sanga ndolu	We gather together to seek wisdom
34.	Ma ita laesa tunga lela	And we gather as one to search for knowledge
35.	Nai Batafia ma Matabi.	In Batavia and Matabi.
36.	Mane dua ma boko telu	The two rulers and three lords
37.	Neme Tada Muli ma Lene Kona	From Tada Muli and Lene Kona [Thie]
38.	Neme Ninga Lada ma Hengu Hena	From Ninga Ladi and Hengu Hena [Loleh]
39.	Neme Pena Pua ma Maka Lama	From Pena Pua and Maka Lama [Ba’a]
40.	Boe ma ala lakandolu tona ofan	They conceive of a sailing boat
41.	Ma ala lalela balu paun.	And they fashion a sailing perahu.
42.	Tehu latane:	But they ask:
43.	‘Ita fe tona nade hata?	‘What name will we give the boat?
44.	Ma ita fe balu tamo be?’	And what designation will we give the perahu?’
45.	De ala fe nade Sanga Ndolu	They give the name: ‘To Seek Wisdom’
46.	Ma ala fe tamo Tunga Lela.’	And they give the designation: ‘To Search for Knowledge.’
47.	De malole nai Lote	It was good on Rote
48.	Ma mandak nai Kale.	And proper on Kale.
49.	Faik esa matetuk	On one determined day
50.	Ma ledo esa matemak	And at one appropriate time
51.	De ala laba lala tona ofa	They climb upon the boat
52.	Ma ala tinga lala balu paun	And they board the perahu
53.	Ala hela tuku telu-telu	They pull the oars three by three
54.	Ma ala kale kola dua-dua.	And shake the oar-rings two by two.
55.	Ala pale uli titidi	They guide the splashing rudder
56.	De leu	They go
57.	Ma ala la kukulu	And they manoeuvre the flapping sail
58.	De leu	They go
59.	Fo sanga ndolu sio	To seek the wisdom of nine
60.	Ma tunga lela falu	And to stalk the knowledge of eight
61.	Nai Batafia daen	In Batavia’s land
62.	Ma Matabi oen.	And Matabi’s water.
63.	Losa meti Batafia daen	Arriving at the tidal waters of Batavia’s land
64.	Ma nduku tasi Matabi oen	And reaching the sea of Matabi’s water
65.	Ala leu tongo lololo	They go to meet
66.	Ma ala leu nda lilima	And they go to encounter
67.	Lena-lena nai ndia	The great figures there
68.	Ma lesi-lesi nai na, lae:	And the superior lords there, saying:
69.	‘Ami mai neme Lote Daen	‘We come from Lote’s Land
70.	Ma ami mai neme Kale Oen	And we come from Kale’s Waters
71.	Sanga Tui Sodak fo tane	Seeking the Tui Tree of Wellbeing to plant
72.	Ma tunga Bau Molek fo sele	And stalking the Bau Tree of Peace to sow
73.	Nai Lote Daen ma Kale Oen.’	On Lote’s Land and Kale’s Waters.’
74.	Hapu Tui Sodak ma Bau Molek.	They obtain the Tui of Wellbeing and Bau of Peace.
75.	Ala lolo-fali leu Sepe Langak	They return to the Reddening Head
76.	Ma diku-dua leu Timu Dulu	And go back to the Dawning East
77.	For tane Tui lakaboboin	To plant the tui tree with care
78.	Ma sele Bau lasamamaon.	And sow the bau tree with attention.

The bau and tui trees are associated with water—riverbanks, lake shores and the coast. The bau is the sea hibiscus (Hibiscus tiliaceus) and the tui is probably a species of milktree (Sapium indicum Willd). The roots and tendrils of these trees are the focus of attention in traditional ritual chants. This can be illustrated by a few lines of the mortuary chant Ndi Loniama ma Laki Elokama.¹⁶ In a concatenation of metaphoric associations, the roots of these trees as they penetrate the water near where they are planted are seen as an attractor of and shelter for crabs and shrimp. These creatures are, in turn, a metaphor for widows and orphans, who represent all humankind.

Bau naka-boboik	A bau tree to care for
Ma tui nasa-mamaok.	And a tui tree to watch over.
De tati mala bau ndanan	Cut and take a branch of the bau tree
Ma aso mala tui baen	Slice and take a limb from the tui tree
Fo tane neu Dano Hela	To plant at the Lake Hela
Ma sele neu Le Kosi	And to sow at the River Kosi
Fo ela okan-na lalae	That its roots may creep forth
Ma samun-na ndondolo	And its tendrils may twine
Fo ela poek-kala leu tain	For shrimp to cling
Ma nik-kala leu feon,	And crabs to circle round,
Fo poek ta leu tain	For it is not shrimp that cling
Te ana-mak leu tain	But orphans who cling
Ma nik ta leu feon	And not crabs that circle round
Te falu-ina leu feon.	But widows who circle round.

In its long concluding section, Sanga Ndolu ma Tunga Lela embarks on a topogeny: an ordered succession of dyadic placenames that identify different domains on the island of Rote. The possibility of planting cuttings of the bau and tui trees allows their spread throughout the island, thus creating a narrative sequence like that of the planting of rice and millet in the traditional origin narratives (Recitation 7 from Termanu in Chapter 4 and Recitations 5 and 6 from Thie in Chapter 6).

Christianity is first planted in the domain of Thie (Tuda Meda ma Do Lasi), then in Loleh (Teke Dua ma Finga Telu) and then in Ba’a (Tanga Loi ma Oe Mau). As these trees of the knowledge of Christianity spread their roots and tendrils, the populations of other domains come and take the trees and plant them in their domains. This topogeny proceeds east along the southern coast of Rote and then, from the furthest eastern domain of Landu, it tracks back along the north coast of the island and onto the offshore island of Ndao until all of Rote has received the complete wellbeing and full peace of Christianity, which is phrased as the ‘wellbeing of nine’ and the ‘peace of eight’ (soda sio//mole falu):

79.	Tane leu Tuda Meda	They plant at Tuda Meda
80.	Ma sele leu Do Lasi	And they sow at Do Lasi [Thie]
81.	Tane leu Teke Dua	They plant at Teke Dua
82.	Ma sele leu Finga Telu	And they sow at Finga Telu [Loleh]
83.	Tane leu Tanga Loi	They plant at Tanga Loi
84.	Ma sele leu Oe Mau.	And they sow at Oe Mau [Ba’a].
85.	Tui Sodak nai Dano Hela	The Tui of Wellbeing at Dano Hela
86.	Okan na lalae	Its roots spread out
87.	Ma Bau Molek nai Le Kosi	And the Bau of Peace at Le Kosi
88.	Samun na ndondolo.	Its tendrils spread forth.
89.	Boe ma hataholi neme basa daen	People from all the lands
90.	Ma dahena neme basa oen	And inhabitants from all the waters
91.	Tati lala Bau ndanan	Cut the bau tree’s branches
92.	Ma aso lala Tui ba’en	And slice the tui tree’s boughs
93.	Fo tane nai Lote ingu	To plant in Lote’s domains
94.	Ma sele nai Kale leo.	And sow among Kale’s clans.
95.	Tane leu Pila Sue	They plant at Pila Sue
96.	Ma sele leu Nggeo Deta	And they sow at Nggeo Deta [Talae]
97.	Tane leu Tufa Laba	They plant at Tufa Laba
98.	Ma sele leu Ne’e Feo	And they sow at Ne’e Feo [Keka]
99.	Tane leu Meda	They plant at Meda
100.	Ma sele leu Ndule	And they sow at Ndule [Bokai]
101.	Tane leu Lenu Petu	They plant at Lenu Petu
102.	Ma sele leu Safe Solo	And they sow at Safe Solo [Lelenuk]
103.	Tane leu Diu Dulu	They plant at Diu Dulu
104.	Ma sele leu Kana Langa	And they sow at Kana Langa [Diu]
105.	Tane leu Pengo Dua	They plant at Pengo Dua
106.	Ma sele leu Hilu Telu	And they sow at Hilu Telu [Bilba]
107.	Tane leu Londa Lusi	They plant at Londa Lusi
108.	Ma sele leu Batu Bela	And they sow at Batu Bela [Ringgou]
109.	Tane leu Fai Fua	They plant at Fai Fua
110.	Ma sele leu Ledo So’u	And they sow at Ledo So’u [Oepao]
111.	Tane leu Soti Mori	They plant at Soti Mori
112.	Ma sele leu Bola Tena	And they sow at Bola Tena [Landu]
113.	Tane leu Tunga Oli	They plant at Tunga Oli
114.	Ma sele leu Namo Ina	And they sow at Namo Ina [Korbaffo]
115.	Tane leu Koli	They plant at Koli
116.	Ma sele leu Buna	And they sow at Buna [Termanu]
117.	Tane leu Tefu Buna	They plant at Tefu Buna
118.	Ma sele leu Nggafu Huni	And they sow at Nggafu Huni [Lelain]
119.	Tane leu Dae Mea	They plant at Dae Mea
120.	Ma sele leu Tete Lifu	And they sow at Tete Lifu [Dengka]
121.	Tane leu Tasi Puak	They plant at Tasi Puak
122.	Ma sele leu Li Sona	And they sow at Li Sona [Oenale]
123.	Tane leu Dela Muri	They plant at Dela Muri
124.	Ma sele leu Ana Iko	And they sow at Ana Iko [Delha]
125.	Tane leu Ndao Nusan	They plant at Ndao Nusa
126.	Ma sele leu Folo Manu.	And they sow at Folo Manu [Ndao].
127.	Tui Soda na dadi	The Tui Tree of Wellbeing comes forth
128.	Ma Bau Mole na tola	And the Bau Tree of Peace appears
129.	Boe ma ana-mak leu tai	The orphans gather round
130.	Ma falu-ina leo feon	And the orphans encircle it
131.	Fo hapu soda sio	To obtain complete wellbeing
132.	Ma hapu mole falu	And obtain full peace
133.	Tao neu nakababanik	To create great promise
134.	Ma tao neu namahenak	And to create great hope
135.	Losa faik ia dale	Up to this day
136.	Ma nduku ledo ia tein	And until this time
137.	Nai Lote do nai Kale.	On Rote and on Kale.

The retelling of the Bible in a Rotenese scriptural voice

One of the defining features of life on Rote has been its political, social and linguistic diversity. Most of the domains of the island were given political recognition by the Dutch East India Company in the seventeenth century and, over time, each has fashioned a distinct identity practice within a common cultural tradition. While every domain claims its own special genealogical practices and linguistic usages, these claims are invariably asserted to contrast with practices in neighbouring domains. Each domain’s cultural awareness is thus defined in relation to other domains on the island.

A crucial aspect of this island-wide awareness can be seen in the way that ‘semantic’ differences have been harnessed in a ritual language that can be broadly understood across all the dialects of the island. A consequence of this embedded diversity is in its numerous sites of separate innovation, with the result that innovations in one part of the island can be, and generally are, transmitted across the island. Like the patterns on traditional cloths, innovations in one domain are taken up, often acknowledged, and then given a local integration.

This has certainly been the case with the spread of Christianity. One example of this is the Lord’s Prayer in Rotenese. Every domain has its own distinctive linguistic version of the Lord’s Prayer—in fact, many domains have two versions, one of which tends to be an elevated expression of this prayer with a great deal of parallelism. Similarly, various expressions of Biblical knowledge have developed in different parts of the island. Poet–preachers in eastern Rote, and in particular the eastern dialect domains of Landu and Ringgou, have fostered the ritual-language expression of Biblical knowledge.

At present, there are two master poets who are recognised performers in this genre: Yulius Iu from Landu and Anderias Ruy from Ringgou. Both are known for their interpretation and rendering of Biblical passages in elaborate ritual-language recitations. It is appropriate to present recitations by both these poets as examples of Christian origin narratives.

Yulius Iu is a lay preacher in the Evangelical Church of Timor (Gereja Masehi Injili di Timor: GMIT). As a poet, he is noted for his extraordinary ability to translate passages from the Bible into fluent ritual language. He specialises in these forms of recitation and does not claim knowledge of traditional origin narratives. This long recitation from Yulius Iu was recorded in 2007.¹⁷ It continues for more than 270 lines.

Genesis: Dae Ina Dadadi

Yulius Iu

The initial lines in this recitation recount the creation of the world, including all the plants and animals of the Earth.

1.	Au tui ia nana, nae:	I tell of
2.	Tui dae ina dadadi	The creation of the world
3.	Masosa na le maulu a	Its beginning and commencement
4.	Tou Mana Sura Poi a	The Inscriber of the Heights
5.	Ma Tate Mana Adu Lai a	And the Creator of the Heavens
6.	Adu neme lalai no dae ina.	Created Heaven and Earth.
7.	Boema adu do tao nalan	Then he created and made them
8.	Tehu bei kiu-kiu kima rou	But still there was darkness like the inside of a shell
9.	Ma bei hatu-hatu do tafeo	And still there was gloom all round
10.	Bei nafaroe dea ei	As if still groping in the legs of a fish weir
11.	Bei nafadama lutu lima	Still fumbling in the arms of a fish-trap
12.	Basa boema adu nala malua a	When he created the brightness
13.	Ma riti ndala makaledo a	And generated daylight
14.	De malua nala dulu	The sun rose in the east
15.	Ma makaledo nala laka	And the daylight appeared at the head
16.	Basa boema adu do tao nala	When this had been created and made
17.	Tada nala oe mamis no tasi oe.	He separated freshwater and seawater.
18.	Basa boema adu do tao nala	When this had been created and made
19.	Adu do tao basa-basa	He created and made all
20.	Hu marerebi ma ara ma do masesepe a.	The tree plants and leaved plants.
21.	Basa boema adu do tao nala	When this had been created and made
22.	Malua a do makaledo a	There was daylight and sunshine
23.	Ialah bula a, fandu ara, ma ledo a.	The Moon, the stars and the Sun.

The next lines of the recitation proceed to recount the creation of Adam and then of Eve. Unlike Peu Malesi, Yulius Iu does not give these figures Rotenese names but identifies them explicitly as Adam and Hawa (Eve). Adam, on his own, is described as ‘a lone buffalo and a solitary chicken’—common icons in traditional recitations. When Adam and Eve are joined, their situation—as indicated in lines 45 and 46, which I translate as ‘Such is a proper social life and an ordered way of living’—could be translated, more literally, as ‘proper clan life//good village life’.

24.	Basa boema adu tao	When this was done, he created and made
25.	Laihenda daebafo a	A person on the Earth
26.	Ma hataholi batu poi	And a human in the world
27.	Adu tao nala Adam	He created Adam
28.	Tehu tou a kise apa	But he was a man like a lone buffalo
29.	Ma tate a mesa manu.	And the boy like a solitary chicken.
30.	De neu fai esa nai ndia	Then on a particular day
31.	Ma ledo dua nai na	And at a certain time
32.	Boema Adam suku dodoko lakan	Adam fell asleep
33.	Ma ana peu ailunu lima	And napped with his hands as pillow
34.	Boma Tou Mana Adu Lai a	Then the Creator of the Heavens
35.	Ma Tate mana Sura Poi a	And the Inscriber of the Heights
36.	Neu leo de hai na Adam ai usu kise na	Went and took from Adam a rib from his side
37.	Boema adu na neu lahenda	Then he created a human
38.	Ma tao na leo hataholi.	And made a person.
39.	Boema mon nai Adam neu	Then he brought her to Adam
40.	De neu de nahara ma nadasi:	Then he spoke and said:
41.	‘Nai ia nana hu nata ndia na so	‘Here is the right trunk
42.	Ma ndana nasarai na ndia so	And branch to lean on
43.	Dadi neu sao uma a leo	To become a wife of the house
44.	Ma mori neu mo tu lo a leo	And to live as household spouse
45.	De leo matalolole	Such is a proper social life
46.	Ma iku matabebesa	And an ordered way of living
47.	De losa duas	So that [you] both
48.	Leo ma iku rai mamana	Live and reside at a place
49.	Si seu ma so’e dode	Tear, then sew and scoop then serve
50.	De hi’a fo setele	Laughing happily and
51.	Ma eki fo natadale.’	Shouting for joy.’

At this stage in the recitation, the Creator of the Heavens and the Inscriber of the Heights places a binding command on Adam and Hawa not to lay a hand on the ‘keka tree of prohibition and the ndao stone of regulation’. The image that is conveyed by this formulaic set of pairs is not of a tree on its own but of a merger of rock and tree (batu//ai)—an image that conjures up the specially marked mortuary monuments known as tutus that are found scattered through the island.¹⁸

52.	Tehu, mai fai esa nai ndia	But on a certain day
53.	Boema ledo dua nai na	And at a particular time
54.	Boema Tou Mana Adu Lai a	The Creator of the Heavens
55.	Ma Tate Mana Sura Poi a	And the Inscriber of the Heights
56.	Ana hara no heke nè	He spoke the binding command
57.	Ma dasi no bara tada:	And he uttered the voice of prohibition:
58.	‘De basa-basa hata	‘All things growing there
59.	Nai oka ma nai dea dale ia	In that garden and in that precinct
60.	Bole upa ma tesa tei a	You can eat to your full
61.	Ma minu a tama dale a	And drink to your satisfaction
62.	Te noi ai esa nai oka talada	But there is a tree in the middle of the garden
63.	Nai ia nade ai pala keka	Its name is the keka tree of prohibition
64.	Ma batu ndilu ndao.	And the ndao stone of regulation.
65.	Boso tai lima	Do not lay your hand
66.	Ma ei na neu.	Nor your foot upon it.
67.	De fai bea o tai lima ma neu	On the day you put your hand on it
68.	Ho dua kemi upa sama-sama	When both of you drink together
69.	Ma mia sama-sama,	And eat together,
70.	Sono neu ko fai esa na ndia	As on that day
71.	Ma ledo dua nai na	And at that time
72.	Te lu mata mori	Then tears will appear
73.	Ma pinu idu a dadi neu ko emi dua	And snot will originate for both of you
74.	Dadi neu tu’e tei	Becoming a heart’s regret
75.	Ma mori neu sale dale.’	And growing into inner disappointment.’

The approach to Hawa is portrayed as intimate and persuasive. The tempter is a snake, but this is not made explicit until further along in the recitation. In this recitation, ‘snake’ is not paired with ‘eel’, as in Peu Malesi’s version. Following ritual-language conventions, the numbers two and three are combined to indicate that both Adam and Hawa partake of the forbidden fruit and leaves. They then immediately feel guilty.

76.	Tehu no nitu a duduku na	But then with a spirit’s seduction
77.	Ma no mula a o’oti na	And with a ghost’s persuasion
78.	Na neu no naneta no Hawa	He came and met Hawa
79.	Lima nda lima pua	Hand met hand like an areca nut
80.	Ma laka toko laka no	And head touched head like a coconut
81.	Selu dasi na neu	Raised his voice
82.	Ma lole hara na neu	And brought forth his words
83.	Neu Hawa nae:	Saying to Hawa:
84.	‘Hu ubea tao	‘What is the reason
85.	Ma sala ubea	And what is wrong
86.	Ma siko ubea	And what is the matter
87.	De ndi na basa-basa hata fo rai oka	That all things in this garden
88.	Ma dea dale ia	And inside this precinct
89.	Emi dua bole mi’a ma minu	You two may eat and drink
90.	Hu ai nai oka a talada	But the tree in the middle of the garden
91.	Emi dua ta mia?’	You two may not eat?’
92.	Boema Hawa nae:	Then Hawa said:
93.	‘Kalau hara heke ne ara mori	‘If the binding command has been given
94.	Ma dasi bara tada ara dadi	And voice of prohibition has been raised
95.	Nae kalau ami dua upa ma mia minu	That if we two eat and drink
96.	Sono meu ko ami dua	Then for both of us
97.	Lalu mula a mori	A spirit death will appear
98.	Ma sapu nitu a dadi.’	And a deathly demise occur.’
99.	Boema meke ana selu dasi a neu	Then the snake raised his voice
100.	Ma lole hara na neu:	And brought forth his words:
101.	‘Nai kalau emi dua mia	‘If both of you eat
102.	Sono neu ko dadi matafali ao	Then your body will transform
103.	Ma masadua ao	And your body will change
104.	Dadi neu Tou Mana Sura Poi	To become the Inscriber of the Heights
105.	Ma Tate Mana Adu Lai.’	And the Creator of the Heavens.’
106.	Hu na de doe-doe a dei	Because of the craving and craving
107.	Ma nau-nau a dei,	And desiring and desiring,
108.	De nau ai pala keka boa	She desired the fruit of keka tree of prohibition
109.	Ma nau batu ndilu ndao buna.	And desired the flower of ndao stone of regulation.
110.	Nau-nau a dei	Desiring and desiring
111.	Ma doe-doe a dei	Craving and craving
112.	De nau lain bo’a bala hoe	So desiring the young fruit on high
113.	De lusu boa bala hoe	The sweet young fruit
114.	Ma nau poin de male don a de	And desiring the tender leaves at the top
115.	Do petu ma lene	Leaves soft and juicy
116.	De duas mo na lena lima	Both extended their hands
117.	Ma kani do seluk ein.	And stretched out their feet.
118.	Ra rala lain boa bala hoe	Then they ate the young fruit on high
119.	De boa lusu bala hoe	The sweet young fruit
120.	Upa nala poin do	And they drank from the leaves at the top
121.	De do petu ma lendu.	Leaves soft and juicy.
122.	Boema duas tada ra siko sio a	Then the two felt their guilt grow great
123.	Ma telus mori ma sala falu.	And the three felt their wrong grow large.

The Creator of the Heavens and the Inscriber of the Heights comes looking for Adam and Hawa, who profess their guilt in a complex formulaic metaphor: ‘An estuary’s bottom of guilt and a river’s dregs of sin’ (oli bui masala//le tende masiko). Neither the largest of tree leaves nor swathes of tree bark can cover their loins and thighs.

124.	Tou Mana Adu Lai a	The Creator of the Heavens
125.	Ma Tate Mana Sura Poi a	And the Inscriber of the Heights
126.	Mai teteni ma mai natane	Came to see and came to ask
127.	Seluk dasi a neu	Again, raising his voice
128.	Ma lole hara a neu:	And lifting his words:
129.	Adam-Adam, te o nai bea?’	‘Adam-Adam, where are you?’
130.	Adam seluk dadae dasi	Adam replied in a humble voice
131.	Ma lole mamale hara nae:	And spoke with weakened words:
132.	‘Ami dua nai ia.	‘Both of us are here.
133.	Tehu ami dadi nai masala	But we have become guilty
134.	De oli bui masala	In an estuary’s bottom of guilt
135.	Ma ami mori nai masiko	We have grown sinful
136.	De le tende masiko.	In a river’s dregs of sin.
137.	De ami dua lao soro funi ao	Both of us walk hiding our bodies
138.	Ma ami dua hae bubui ao	And we two rest covering ourselves
139.	De ami dua nai bea na	For us two are in this situation
140.	Bina do ta palu paun	Bina leaves cannot wrap the thighs
141.	Ma ta palu ami dua paun	And cannot wrap both our thighs
142.	Ma kode-kè ta ndule kere	And kode-ke bark cannot cover the loins
143.	Te ta ndule mai dua keren.’	Nor can it cover both our loins.’

It is at this point in the recitation that the Creator of the Heavens and the Inscriber of the Heights passes judgement on Adam and Hawa. This judgement extends to the tempter snake as well. A key refrain in these lines is that the temptation of Adam and Hawa was caused by their own cravings and desires.

144.	Boema Tou Mana Adu Lai a	Then the Creator of the Heavens
145.	Ma Tate mana Sura Poi a nae:	And the Inscriber of the Heights said:
146.	‘Boe te emi dua lo do lena lima	‘Surely both of you extended your hands
147.	Ma kani do seseli ei.’	And stretched your feet’
148.	Leo hara heke ne	Thus speaking the binding command
149.	Ma dasi bara tada a neu.	And uttering the voice of prohibition.
150.	Boema duas ndi bea na rae:	They there replied, saying:
151.	‘Hu no nitu a nonoi	‘It was because of the spirit’s persuasion
152.	Ma meke a tatao.’	And the snake’s enticement.’
153.	Boema nalo nala telus a	Then he called out to the three
154.	Ma na kou nala duas leo	And shouted out to the two
155.	Boema hara heke ne a mori	He spoke the binding command
156.	Ma dasi bara tada a dadi nae:	And uttered the voice of prohibition, saying:
157.	‘Hu no dale tene-tu a nonoi	‘It was because of a heart craving for persuasion
158.	Ma tei saka-lai tatao	And a core desiring enticement
159.	De tene-tu nai lain a	Craving for what is above
160.	Ma saka-lai nai malole a	And seeking after good things
161.	Te lo dai lena lima	That you extended your hands
162.	Ma kani do seseli ei	And have stretched your feet
163.	De besa ia mulai neme fai ia dale	So now beginning from this certain day
164.	Ma ledo ia tein	And from this particular time
165.	Au e dan kedi emi telu a	I decide and declare that the three of you
166.	Ialah bati neme neu meke a	That is, for the snake
167.	Mulai neme fai dale na mai ri bea a	From this day forward
168.	Rodo neu rada dale a	You will crawl with your chest
169.	Ma upa soda ma mua mole	And your sustenance and nourishment
170.	Neme batu a mai.	Will come out from stone.
171.	Mulai fai ia dale juga	Beginning from this particular time, too
172.	Hawa nairu fo no totoka ma no tata	Hawa’s pregnancy will be difficult and painful
173.	No lu mata ma pinu idu	With tears from the eyes and snot from the nose
174.	No boki dan lae no tei hedi	Giving birth and delivering in pain
175.	Boki dan lae ma dale susa.	Giving birth and delivering in sorrow.
176.	Leo na leo Adam mulai neme fai ia	As for Adam, from this day
177.	Sale ma tuka	With regret and disappointment
178.	O saka noi ma tao	You will seek your living
179.	O tao nai nura lasi	You will work in the deep forest
180.	Ma nai pia le	And on hard rocks
181.	Ladi basa-basa unu laka sosoru	Tapping the palm tree until your knees ache
182.	Da ma titi besa konana hapu dadai mala	Your blood will drop for enough to live
183.	Untuk tao neu masoda a.	To work for your wellbeing.

When Adam and Hawa are expelled from the garden, they go forth to make a living, enduring all the hardships and struggles of life like that on Rote. They leave a place of ease—a place where one tears then sews and where one scoops then serves (formulaic phrases originally applied to an imagined easy life in Kupang) and they go forth to toil and work with dripping tears and snot. This outpouring of tears and snot is compared to the prolific tiny fruit of a jujube tree (Ziziphus mauritiana, Indian jujube) and the blossoms of the forest pio tree. The passage uses the dyadic set (soda//mole) associated with Christian life but indicates this usage is intended to describe the human condition.

184.	Mulai neme fai ia dalen	Beginning from this particular time
185.	Ma usi do pu heni Adam no Hawa leo	Adam and Hawa were expelled and evicted
186.	Heo oka dea a leo.	Out of the garden precinct.
187.	Ara la’o do lope leme	They walked with swinging arms from
188.	Mamana si, se’u a mai	The place where one tears then sews
189.	Ma so’e, dode a	And scoops then serves
190.	Reu tuka do reu saka leo	To go to seek and go to search
191.	Nai nura dan nai lasi a leo	Through the woods and the forest
192.	Hu nura mana kaitio ara	The woods full of kaitio bushes
193.	Ma lasi mana lolo batu a leo	And forest strewn with stones
194.	Hu fo no tei saka-lalai a	Because of the core’s desires
195.	Ma dale tene-tutu a	And heart’s cravings
196.	Te tene-tu neu lain a	Craving after what is above
197.	Ma saka-lai malole a.	And desiring after good things.
198.	Mulai neme fai ndia dale	Beginning from this certain day
199.	Ledo ia tei	At this particular time
200.	Boema duas na kalua leo	The two lived there
201.	Duas a lope lima	The two swung their arms
202.	Ma kani ei a leo	And stretched their feet
203.	Lope lima fo ere u leo	Swinging their arms as they went
204.	Tuka ma saka nai nura	Seeking and searching in the forest
205.	Ma nai lasi a leo	And in the woods
206.	Losa fai dan mandu’u ledo a	Until the sun had set
207.	Ladi basa undu laka sosoru	Tapping palm trees until their legs ached
208.	Puse na ra titi	With sweat dripping
209.	Ma da na ra fa	And blood dropping
210.	Besa konana soda a natetu	That wellbeing may be ordered
211.	Ma mole a manda.	And peace may be proper.
212.	Mulai neme fai ia na juga	Beginning from this day also
213.	Ara tuka ma saka	They sought and searched
214.	Te soda ta natetu na	But wellbeing was not in order
215.	Ma mole ta na nda so	And the peace was not proper
216.	Hu karena no dale tene-tu	Because of the heart’s craving
217.	Ma tei saka-lalai a.	And the core’s desires.
218.	Boema soda neu natahi	Wellbeing might be better
219.	Ma mole neu nataleko	And peace might improve
220.	Tuka ma saka	Seeking and searching
221.	Roi ma tao	Toiling and working
222.	Tehu nai pinu dua o dua	But still snot fell two by two
223.	Ma nai lu telu o telu	And tears dropped three by three
224.	Tasaleu ai sale	Encountering the tree of regret
225.	Ma ratundu batu tu’e	And knocking against the stone of remorse
226.	De sale dale neu tei	With inner regret
227.	Ma tu’e tei neu tei	And heartfelt remorse
228.	Losa lu mata mori	Until tears came forth
229.	Ma pinu idu a dadi,	And snot appeared,
230.	De pinu ara kara pio lasi a	Snot dropping like forest pio blossoms
231.	Namanosi tuka dala	Falling along the way
232.	Ma lu ko boa naru	And tears dropping like long ko fruit
233.	Rematiti tuka enok.	Dropping along the path.
234.	No ndia soda laihenda a	So it is with human wellbeing
235.	Ma mole hataholi.	And with mankind’s peace.

The concluding lines in this recitation offer ancestral advice with a Christian message in a clear Rotenese setting the activities of which regulate each day’s passing.

236.	A losa nai fai ia dale	To this day
237.	Nduku ledo ia tein	And until this time
238.	Tuka ma saka	Seeking and searching
239.	Noi ma tao	Pondering and working
240.	Neme le ulu a mai	From the beginning
241.	De lasi a peda hela neme le ulu a	The elders promised this from the beginning
242.	Mai bai a hule ela:	And the ancestors pledged this:
243.	Ita molo tuka momolo	We step following in step
244.	Ma tabu tuka tatabu	And we tread following in tread
245.	Hu ria lasi nae:	Because, as the elders say:
246.	Molo meu suta lane	Stepping, we follow the line
247.	Ma tabu tuka lae mae	And treading, we follow the path
248.	Sono besa konana	So until now
249.	Ndu’u ma losa	Reaching and arriving at
250.	Lutu lolo ei	The stone mound to stretch the legs
251.	Ma ro ai ifa lima	And wood planks to fold the arms
252.	Sono tei ko ta nasala	Be not inwardly in error
253.	Ma dale ko ta nasiko.	And be not off target in your heart.
254.	Noi selama ia	Consider that as long as
255.	Ita basa bole tuka ma saka	We all can seek and search
256.	Roi ma tao.	Toil and work.
257.	Sadi iku nasa-neda	Continually remember
258.	Ma leo nafa-ndendene	And continually bear in mind
259.	Sale dale dai fai	Repent when you have the day
260.	Ma tu’e tei dai ledo.	And regret when you have the time.
261.	Fo ela ko fai na neu fai	As one day follows another day
262.	Ma ledo a na neu ledo	And one sun follows another sun
263.	Fai neu pesi nesu	There is a period for pounding rice
264.	Ma ledo a neu te’e alu	And a time for resting the mortar
265.	Fai neu bibi kela	A period to stable the goats
266.	Ma ledo a neu so’o dupe	And a time for the sun to set
267.	Fai neu huru manu	A period for gathering the chicken
268.	Ma ledo a neu hani bafi	And a time for feeding the pigs
269.	Sono ita basa hia mo setele	So we laugh joyfully
270.	Ma eki boe teta dale	And shout happily
271.	Nai fai etu ma ledo basa.	At day’s end and sun’s setting.

This is a remarkable recitation that utilises an array of traditional dyadic sets cast within a Christian context and thus intended to convey a Christian sense of life’s condition. At the same time, this recitation uses a variety of dyadic sets associated with Christianity but used in an altered sense to provide its Christian message. One of the recurrent sets in this recitation is tuka//saka, the Landu dialect expression of the set tunga//sanga (‘to seek’//‘to search for’). This is the set used to describe the search for (Christian) wisdom and knowledge but here it is used without a specific object, implying a continuing and open-ended pursuit in life’s activities. This set is linked with the set roi//tao (‘to toil’//‘to work’); thus, seeking and searching join toiling and working as common human activities.

***

The other eastern Rotenese poet known for his recitation of Biblical origin narratives is the master poet Anderias Ruy from Ringgou, the domain neighbouring Landu. Ande Ruy, as he is more commonly addressed, is at present the best-known Rotenese poet and performer. He is regularly called upon for formal occasions to represent the government and to participate at official events. He was, for example, the poet called upon to officially welcome the Indonesian President Joko Widodo on his visit to the island in January 2018.

Whereas Yulius Iu specialises in Christian performances, many of which are in a church setting, Ande Ruy is a poet who can and does try to perform all genres of recitations. He is a knowledgeable and versatile poet, chanter, singer and drummer, who commands an extensive repertoire. His repertoire includes Christian recitations.

An example of his appropriation of Biblical knowledge is his ritual-language narrative of creation in Genesis, which he has entitled ‘Mother Earth’s Creation from the Beginning’. This recitation, which I recorded in 2007, is a personal, interpretative rendering of this Biblical knowledge, which, as far as I can determine, Ande Ruy considers as a complement to and extension of other Rote origin narratives. Indeed, this is a narrative account of the creation of a Rotenese world. The recitation can be divided into the different acts of creation.

Dae Ina a Dadadi Masosana

Anderias Ruy

These initial lines set the stage for and announce the first act of creation. Their symmetry and succession are a masterly expression of an initial process of creation that is repeated in subsequent lines.

1.	Hida bei leo hata na	At a time long ago
2.	Ma data bei leo dona	At a time since past
3.	Bei iu-iu kima lou	Still dark as the inside of a clam
4.	Ma bei hatu-hatu data feo	Still gloom wrapped all round
5.	Ma lua bei taa	Sunlight was not yet
6.	Ma makaledo bei taa	Daylight was not yet
7.	Ma bei pela oe leleu	Still surface water throughout
8.	Bei tasi oe lala	Still the water of the sea surrounding
9.	Ma Tate Mana-sura Bula	The Inscriber of the Moon
10.	Fo nai Tema Sio	In the Fullness of Nine
11.	Do Tou Mana-adu Ledo	Or the Creator of the Sun
12.	Fo nai Bate Falu	In the Abundance of Eight
13.	Bei ise-ise leo apa	Still isolated as a lone buffalo
14.	Ma bei mesa-mesa leo manu	Still lonely as a lone chicken
15.	Bei iku nonoi	Still in the Heights
16.	Dula Dale namaleu	The Patterner of the Heart comes
17.	Bei malalao	Still hovering above
18.	Do Malala Funa bei leu-leu	Or the Marker of the Core still comes
19.	Do bei lala-lala rae	Still hovering over the Earth
20.	Pela oe leleu	Moving over the water
21.	Do tasi oe lalama	The waters of the sea extending
22.	Ma Tate Mana-sura Bula	The Inscriber of the Moon
23.	Do Tou Mana-adu Ledo	Or the Creator of the Sun
24.	Lole hara na neu	Raises forth his voice
25.	Fo hara eke na neu	The leaden voice comes forth
26.	Ma selu dasi na neu	Lifts forth his words
27.	Fo dasi lilo na neu, nae:	Golden words go forth, saying:
28.	‘Makaledo a dadi ma	‘Let sunlight occur
29.	Ma malua a mori.’	And let daylight appear.’
30.	Boe ma malua mori	So, light appears
31.	Makaledo dadi,	Sunlight occurs,
32.	Silu malua a dulu	Dawn lights the east
33.	Ma hua makaledo laka.	Daybreak brightens the head.

These next lines announce the second stage of creation: the separation of the Earth from the Heavens, concluding with the contrasting image of ‘the east as red as a mango leaf and the head[lands] as green as a rice tip’.

34.	Boema nadasi,	Then he speaks,
35.	Dasi lilo na neu	Golden words come forth
36.	Ma hara selu,	And he says,
37.	Hara eke na neu:	The leaden voice comes forth:
38.	‘Tada Dae no Lain.’	‘Separate the Earth from the Heavens.’
39.	De ri rae:	So, it is said:
40.	Tema Sio do Bate Falu	Fullness of Nine or Abundance of Eight
41.	Poi do Atan	The zenith or the heights
42.	Fo kala ledo mai dulu	So the rising sun appears in the east
43.	Ma toda bula mai laka	And the falling moon appears at the head
44.	Silu malua dulu	Dawn lights the east
45.	Ma hu’a makaledo laka	Daybreak brightens the head
46.	Fo dulu pila pao don	The east as red as a mango leaf
47.	Do laka modo hade pedan.	Or the head as green as a rice tip.
48.	Rae dae bafo do batu poi	The earth’s surface or rock’s points
49.	Liun do sain.	Ocean or sea.

Each stage of creation is announced by the golden words and a leaden voice. This stage is again concluded by reference to a traditional Rotenese saying:

50.	Selu dasi na neu	He lifts forth his words
51.	Ma lole hara na neu	And raises forth his voice
52.	Fo hara eke na neu:	The leaden voice comes forth:
53.	‘Dadi mai Batu Poi a.’	‘Let there be the Rock’s Point.’
54.	Ma dasi lilo na neu:	And the golden words come forth:
55.	Mori mai Dae Bafo a.’	‘Let there appear the Earth’s Surface.’
56.	Boe ma mana mori, ara mori	What appears, appears
57.	Ma mana dadi, ara dadi	And what comes forth, comes forth
58.	Fo biti ne ara dadi do mori	Plants come forth or appear
59.	Fo mori reni hu ana	Appear with tiny trunks
60.	Ma dadi reni hu ina.	And come forth with large trunks.
61.	Boe ma feli nade neu	So, he gives them their name
62.	Ma beka bon, rae:	And their aroma, saying:
63.	‘Hu mana rerebi do	‘Trunks that grow thick
64.	Do mana sasape ara	Leaves that hang down
65.	Fo rabuna bitala	So that flowers bud forth
66.	Ma raboa bebeku	And so that fruit droop
67.	Fo buna nara, mafa modo	Flowers of half-ripe green
68.	Ma boa nara, latu lai	And fruit of overripe yellow
69.	Fo ono rule Dae Bafo a	Coming down on to the Earth
70.	Ma refa feo Batu Poi a.’	And descending round the world.’
71.	De ri rae:	So, it is said:
72.	‘Mara mana lae modo ara	‘Whatever is half-ripe is still green
73.	Ma latu mana siki none ara.’	And whatever is overripe is already soft.’

In these next lines, the creation of the Sun, Moon and stars invokes two more common Rotenese sayings. The first of these is the often-heard poetic comparison ‘my father is like the Sun, rising and setting’ (ti//toda), ‘my mother is like the Moon appearing and disappearing’ (mopo//mori). The second invocation is of the stars that form Orion’s Belt, which are described in Rotenese as the ‘stars that carry the pig’ (two figures carrying a pig on a stick between them), and the Pleiades, the seven stars whose appearance ushers in the rice harvest.

74.	Boe ma adu ledo a dadi.	So, the Sun is created.
75.	Fo ri rae:	For it is said:
76.	Bea aman leo ledo	My father is like the Sun
77.	Ma ti toda leo ledo	Rising, setting like the Sun
78.	Ma toda bula a mori.	Setting as the Moon appears.
79.	Fo ri rae:	For it is said:
80.	Bea inan leo bulan	My mother is like the Moon
81.	Fo mopo mori leo bulan.	Disappearing, appearing like the Moon.
82.	Ma kari ru neu atan	Scattering stars to the Heavens
83.	De ri rae:	Thus, it is said:
84.	Ru manalepa bafi	The stars that carry the pig
85.	Do hitu manahere hade ra	Or the seven stars that bear the rice
86.	Fo buka bafa do daen	To open the surface of the Earth
87.	Ma silu mata rou lain na	And the eyelids of the Heights
88.	Mora te’e rahate.	Like fireflies blinking.

In the next lines, the voice of the creator speaks directly to creatures of the sea, each of which carries distinct associations in traditional ritual-language compositions. The pairings are crucial: sea clams (tia tasi) form a set with mossy lichen (lopu le). As such, these sea clams (or, more specifically, their shells, which are seen on rocks near the sea) and mossy lichen (also seen on rocks near the sea) are invoked, in other ritual contexts, as botanic images of intensive clustering and close solidarity. Similarly, the fish moko holu and dusu lake are the equivalent in Ringgou of the ritually important tio holu//dusu lae (see Chapter 3) in Termanu, which are linked to the realm of the sea. The linkage of the nase fish of the estuary and playful monkeys of the forest (nase te//ode rane) is less clear but appears to allude to a general idea of the social clustering of Earth’s creatures.

89.	Selu dasin neu sain	His voice goes to the sea
90.	Ma lole haran neu liun	And his words go to the ocean
91.	Fo ela rai tasi a dadi	So that the sea comes forth
92.	Ma seko meti a mori.	And the ocean appears.
93.	Boe ma nahara neu sain, nae:	He speaks to the sea, saying:
94.	‘Moka holu o dadi	‘You, moka holu fish, come forth
95.	Na dadi mo tia tasin	Come forth with tia tasi [sea clams]
96.	Fo ela tia tasi mai tai	That the sea clams may cling
97.	Ma dusu lake o mori	And you dusu lake fish, appear
98.	Na mori mo lopu le	Appear with the lopu le [mossy lichen]
99.	Fo ela lopu le mai feo.	That the mossy lichen may cluster.
100.	Nai sai makeon	In the darkened sea
101.	Do nai liu ma momodo na	Or the deep green ocean
102.	Fo ela oli seu meu esa	So that in the estuary, you go as one
103.	Ma nase te meu esa	And the small nase fish go there
104.	Ma nura nai meu esa	And in the forest, you go as one
105.	Fo ode rane meu esa.’	So that playful monkeys, you go as one.’

In the next lines, the voice of the creator is directed to a variety of creatures, all of whom serve as icons in other ritual-language recitations. These creatures of portent are the lizard of the Sun and gecko of the Moon (korofao ledo//tekelabo bula), the swallows of the Sun and kestrels of the Moon (li lao ledo//selu pela bula), who with small bats and flying foxes (soi ana//bau ana), are associated with the initial winds that presage the change in the monsoons. The creatures of the Heavens are described as accompanying the winds that carry the words of the creator.¹⁹ The next eight lines are the words of the creator, who explains how he sees and shapes knowledge and wisdom (in Ringgou dialect: lela//rolu) and sets a path to be followed. From what follows, knowledge and wisdom are represented as part of the pattern of the world from its earliest creation.

106.	Boe ma lole hara na neu	His word goes forth
107.	Ma selu dasi na neu,	And his voice goes forward,
108.	Nadasi neu dae bafo a	The voice directed to the earth
109.	Ma hara mai batu poi a, nae:	And words directed to the world, saying:
110.	‘Korofao ledo o dadi	‘Lizard of the Sun come forth
111.	Dadi mai dae bafo a	Come forth upon the earth
112.	Dadi mo basa tia dedena mara	Come forth with all your friends
113.	Ma tekelabo bula o mori	And gecko of the Moon appear
114.	Mori mo basa sena mara	Appear with all your companions
115.	Fo dadi meu mana tui dasi	To come forth with those who give voice
116.	Do mori meu mana malosa hara.’	Or appear with those who give word.’
117.	Boema hara neu poin	Then the word goes to Heaven
118.	Ma dasi neu lain, nae:	And the voice goes to the Heights, saying:
119.	‘Li lao ledo a dadi	‘Swallows of the Sun come forth
120.	Dadi mu mana-fako ani	Come forth with those who follow the wind
121.	Dadi mo soi ana timu dulu ra	Come forth with the small bats of the east wind
122.	Ma selu pela bula o mori	And kestrels of the Moon appear
123.	Mori mu mana relu saku	Appear with those who see the storms
124.	Mori mo bau ana sepe laka ra	Appear with the tiny flying foxes of the dawn
125.	Fo ela ani ana timu dulu a	So that light winds of the east
126.	Ani mai fafae	The winds may come to shake
127.	Ma saku ana sepe laka a	And the tiny storms of the dawn
128.	Saku mai titipa	The storms come to gust
129.	Na dadi meu ma neni hara	Coming forth to carry the word
130.	Na mori meu ma losa dasi:	And appear to spread the voice:
131.	‘Bati neu au lima u’u	‘So that my hands
132.	Adu lela ra	Shape the knowledge
133.	Do soa neu au mata boa	Or in order that the pupils of my eyes
134.	Heu rolu ra	See the wisdom
135.	Ela pasa mata reu eno	That they may spy the path
136.	Ma sunda idu reu dala	And they may recognise the road
137.	Fo reu dala dua ra	That they may go along the two roads
138.	Do eno telu ra.’	Or the three paths.’

The next lines describe the ‘fifth and sixth’ days of Creation—a numerical designation required by the formal pairing of numbers in ritual language. The creator views his creation.²⁰ He then calls for the goats and water buffalo of the hills and fields.

139.	Mai fai lima na	Come the fifth day
140.	Ma mai ledo ne na	And come the sixth sun
141.	Nalan neu rerelu	He went to view
142.	Ma nalan neu memete	And he went to inspect
143.	Fo mete neu mata boa	For his eyes
144.	Heu roluna	To see the wisdom
145.	Ma rerelu neu lima u’u	And to view his hands’ work
146.	Adu lolena	To shape the appearance
147.	Tehu lete bai no soda	The hill of wellbeing
148.	Ma bafa bai no loa.	And the surface of great width.
149.	Boe ma lole hara na neu	His word goes forth
150.	Ma selu dasi na neu:	And his voice goes forth:
151.	‘Iko mana fefelo o dadi	‘Swaying tails come forward
152.	Ma sura mana mamasu o mori	And lifting horns appear
153.	Mori mu lete a	Appear to go upon the hills
154.	Ma dadi mu mo a.’	And come forth to go upon the fields.’
155.	Fo hule, rae:	So, they call, saying:
156.	‘Sura manamamasu	‘Horns that lift
157.	Do iko manafefelo ara.’	Or tails that sway.’
158.	Fo ela beka rae:	Thus, to announce, saying:
159.	‘Bulan bote bibi nara	‘The Moon’s flock of goats
160.	Ma Ledo tena apa nara.	And the Sun’s herd of water buffalo.
161.	Rai lete bote bibi	On the hills are flocks of goats
162.	Do mo tena apa a.’	Or on the fields are herds of water buffalo.’
163.	Boe ma bote bibi ra dadi	So, flocks of goats come forth
164.	Ma tena apa ra mori.	And herds of water buffalo appear.

This next passage is focused on the creation of Adam. In it, there is a minor performance lapse. Instead of ‘(Boy) Inscriber of the Moon’//‘(Man) Creator of the Sun’ (Tate Mana-sura Bula//Tou Mana-adu Ledo), as in the initial passage of this recitation, Ande Ruy uses the formula ‘(Boy) Creator of the Moon’//‘(Man) Creator of the Sun’ (Tate Mana-adu Bula//Tou Mana-adu Ledo). Conferring with the ‘Patterner of the Heart’//‘Fashioner of the Inner Self’ (Dula Dale//Le’u Tei), the creator sets out to create a human being.

This creative act is described, as earlier in the creation of the fifth and sixth days, by citing an idiomatic Rotenese expression about what the eyes see and the nose indicates, thus acting according to a preconceived plan.²¹ Adam is created by mixing the Earth’s liver and by pounding the innermost rocks. The ritual formula for the Earth is Dae Bafo//Batu Poi (‘Earth’s Surface and Pointed Rocks’), thus Adam is created from both the earth (dae) and its rocks (batu).

In Rotenese, name and reputation go hand-in-hand. In ritual language, ‘name’ (nade) is paired with ‘aroma’ (bo). In this passage, the creator confers the name ‘Adam’ but Ande Ruy names Adam as ‘The Bird of the East and the Cockerel of the Head’.

165.	Boe ma Tate Mana-adu Bulan	The Creator of the Moon
166.	Ma Tou Mana-adu Ledo	And the Creator of the Sun
167.	Du’a do neu dua,	Thinks twice
168.	Ma afi tai neu telu.	And ponders thrice.
169.	Boema lole hara na neu	Then his word goes forth
170.	Ma selu dasi na neu, nae:	And his voice goes forward, saying:
171.	‘Mana mori ara mori so	‘What appears has appeared
172.	Ma mana dadi ara dadi so	And what comes forth has come forth
173.	Te bea neu relus	Who sees these things
174.	Ma bea neu metes	And who watches these things
175.	Ma bea neu tui	And who speaks of these things
176.	Ma beu neu beka?’	And who talks of these things?’
177.	Boe ma neu du’a na hataoli a	So, he thinks of a human
178.	Ma neu afi na lahenda	And he considers a person
179.	Boema dedea no Dula Dale na	He speaks with the Patterner of the Heart
180.	Ma o’ola no Le’u Tei na	And talks with the Shaper of the Inner Self
181.	Fo ela adu nan leo mata boana	To create things as conceived
182.	Ma ela tao nan leo idu ain.	And make things as indicated.
183.	De ri rae:	So, it is said:
184.	Mata boa heu rolu na	The pupil of the eye shows wisdom
185.	Ma idu bara te tasi na	And the bridge of the nose points the way
186.	Fo Amak Mata Boan	As the Father of the Pupil of the Eye
187.	Ma To’ok Idu Ain.	And Uncle of the Bridge of the Nose.
188.	Boe ma do’i na dae aten	So, he mixes the earth’s liver
189.	Ma tutu a batu buten	And pounds innermost rocks
190.	De adun hataholi	He creates a man
191.	Fo dadi neu hataholi	So that man comes forth
192.	Ma taon laiheda	And he makes a person
193.	Fo mori ne laihenda	So that a human appears
194.	Sama leo rupa na	In his image
195.	Ma deta leo lolena.	And according to his appearance.
196.	Boema foi nade na	So, he gives a name
197.	Hule bon na, rae:	And calls forth an aroma, saying:
198.	‘Tou Manupui Dulu	‘The Man, Bird of the East
199.	Ma Tate O’oro Laka	And the Boy, Cockerel of the Head
200.	Ri Adam.’	This is Adam.’

The final passage of this recitation, recounting the sixth and seventh days of creation, is revealing. It contains lines that evoke the origin of the house—a well-ordered house with firm posts and an encompassing intact roof—and it calls for blessings in lines drawn from traditional origin celebrations: the bounty of the lontar and blessings of the sea. As such, this passage could pass as a traditional recitation. At the same time, however, it speaks of making things clean and pure (lalao//lalafu) for those who are troubled of heart and who seek to follow the right path and it ends with the Christian evocation of wellbeing and peace (soda//mole).

201.	Neu ledo ne na	On the sixth period
202.	Ma neu fai hitu na	And on the seventh day
203.	Boe ma lole hara na neu	His word goes out
204.	Ma selu dasi na neu	And his voice goes forth
205.	Adu nan tetu-tetu	Creating in good order
206.	Ma tao nan tata-tata	And working with care
207.	Na tetu ure dae so	So that order turns upon the earth
208.	Ma tama sini laka rao so	And well-arranged like a thatched roof
209.	Leo tama sini laka rao	Like a well-arranged thatched roof
210.	Tama ta naka boti	Together, it does not spread
211.	Ma tesa di nali folo	Set like a well-planted house post
212.	Tesa ta nata leko so	Set, it does not shake
213.	Rae: ues tou hahae.	It is said: At his work, he rests.
214.	De mai tao ma-lalao	Come make clean
215.	Do ma-lalafu fai ia	Or make pure on this day
216.	Ma fe ua tua mai fai ia	And give the bounty of the lontar on this day
217.	Ma bati nale tasi mai ledo ia	And the blessings of the sea at this time
218.	Ela bati nale neu	So that blessings go
219.	Mana tu’e tei	To those who are troubled at heart
220.	Do manasale dale ara	Or those who feel wrong within
221.	Reu dodo ma tatai	To consider and to weigh up
222.	Fo tabu tuka suta lane dalan	To step along the right road
223.	Ma ela lope tuka lae mae enon	And walk along the proper path
224.	Losa do na neu	For all time forward
225.	Ma seku nete na neu	And for ever onward
226.	Soda mole neu ita.	The wellbeing and peace for us.

This recitation is a fusion: Christian knowledge presented in accordance with traditional ideas, sayings and formulaic phrasing, with allusions to accepted knowledge and practices. It is thus a synthesis of two sources of knowledge regarded as complementary and compatible. The venue for its performance, however, is not a church, as would be the case for Yulius Iu’s recitation, but a more traditional social setting.

Elevating recitation to its highest performance level

The highest level of performance for traditional recitations involves a special linguistic style that is accompanied by—indeed, expressed through—a drumming mode of chanting known as bapa. Significantly, Ande Ruy can, and does, offer his recitation of this origin narrative as a drumming performance that requires complex linguistic verbal play. Although the message of this recitation is not altered in this performative mode, its expression is elevated by a complex reiterative process.

To illustrate this performance mode, one can compare the initial eight lines as recorded in standard recitation mode with those same eight lines in a drumming mode. The first eight lines are as follows:

1.	Hida bei leo hata na	At a time long ago
2.	Ma data bei leo dona	At a time since past
3.	Bei iu-iu kima lou	Still dark as the inside of a clam
4.	Ma bei hatu-hatu data feo	Still gloom wrapped all round
5.	Ma lua bei taa	Sunlight was not yet
6.	Ma makaledo bei taa	Daylight was not yet
7.	Ma bei pela oe leleu	Still surface water throughout
8.	Bei tasi oe lala …	Still the water of the sea surrounding …

These same eight lines in drumming mode, which are set out to indicate the main formulaic pairs (in bold and then separately) are as follows:

1.	Fai nau hida bei-hida bei leo hata	>	Hida bei leo hata
2.	Data bei-data bei leo dona ma	>	Dato bei leo dona
3.	Nau uni bei hatu-hatu data feo ma	>	Bei hatu-hatu data feo
4.	Bei iu-iu-iu-iu kima lou a	>	Iu-iu kima lou
5.	Bei uni tasi oe-tasi oe lala ma	>	Tasi oe lala
6.	Pela oe-pela oe leleu a	>	Pela oe leleu
7.	Fo uni makaledo-makaledo bei taa	>	Makaledo bei taa
8.	Hu malua-malua bei taa ma	>	Malua bei taa

It is essential to recognise this as an entirely separate recitation. As such, and as is common, Ande Ruy has reordered lines, reversing lines 3 and 4 and placing lines 5 and 6 ahead of lines 7 and 8 in comparison with his other ‘standard’ recitation. Most lines have a repetition of the key semantic forms but there are also ‘filler terms’ (fai nau, nau uni, fo uni) inserted to continue the beat and maintain the drumming rhythm. The connector term ma (‘and’) separates lines and can be considered either the end of one or the beginning of the next.²²

The fact that this origin narrative is regarded as suitable for performance in this elevated mode, which is used more commonly at present for funeral chants, is indicative of its inclusion within a repertoire of traditional knowledge. It represents the pinnacle of such knowledge on Rote today.

The spoken and unspoken

This is a study of the spoken word in narratives of great significance. Yet, among those for whom these words were regarded as foundational utterances, there were matters that were considered better not spoken. Of these matters, the most important was the killing of Shark and Crocodile to create the model of the first house. Old Meno was emphatic in his view that this act be known but not stated. He insisted that I understand what had occurred but that I recognise that it was not appropriate to give clear expression to it in the narratives.

This act is, however, alluded to in four lines of Termanu’s Recitation II. When all attempts to construct the house fail, Danga Lena Liun (‘Chief Hunter of the Sea’) and Mane Tua Sain (‘Great Lord of the Sea’) are summoned and, at this point, there are four lines of verse that might not seem to make sense:

Ala taon neu uma	They make him into the house-posts
Ma ala taon neu eda ai.	And they make him into the tree-ladder.
Besak-ka kalu kapa ledo ha’an	Now the sun heats the buffalo sinews
Ma dui manu a’u te’e-na.	And the dew moistens the chicken bones.

The first of these lines use the verb tao (‘to make, to work’), that gives no idea that this creative action involves the killing of the Lords of the Sea. The lines that follow, which seem hardly to fit with the previous lines, are the lines that reveal the death of these lords. They are formulaic lines that recur in mortuary chants and are used to refer to the mortal remains, particularly the bones, of the deceased. Thus, in the Rotenese cosmology of life, the first successful act of creation—the creation of the house—is founded on the sacrifice of the body of the rulers of the realm of the Sea.

In other of Termanu’s recitations, a creature of the Sea renders its body to create a crucial cultural product: rice and millet come from the repeated planting of Bole Sou and Asa Nao; cloth patterns come from the body of Pata Iuk and Dula Foek; and the vessel for indigo and the base for spinning come from the two shells Suti Solo and Bina Bane. Although the initial recitations from Thie are silent about the death of Shark and Crocodile, other recitations recount the death of a creature or creatures from the Sea as part of the process of creation. In Thie, Bole Sou and Asa Nao as well as the shells Suti Solo and Bina Bane are credited with producing rice, millet and the other nine grains and plants of the island, while it is from the capture and slaughter of the sea cow and turtle Masi Dande and Solo Suti that the origin celebration at Nasi Dano derives. The Rotenese do not comment on these acts of creative production but only recount them and remain silent on their creative significance.

The mortuary chants (bini mamates) of the Rotenese liturgy

As a study of the spoken word, this volume provides only a partial record of a more extensive Rotenese ‘liturgical’ tradition. A diverse assortment of mortuary chants constitutes a corpus of oral compositions, all in strict canonical parallelism, that is substantially larger than the corpus of origin narratives. These chants form a less esoteric tradition because they involve—or have involved in the past—the active participation of mourners, led by one or more poets, in a chorus of dancers on the night or nights before burial. Although they share similarities in their composition, these chants are narratives of a different sort from origin narratives.

Each chant is identified with a particular chant character whose life course is imaginatively set out, often beginning at birth and continuing to death, giving emphasis to life as a journey. In some chants, the circumstances of death are recounted; in one notable chant, the chant character describes his pending departure to the Afterworld and admonishes the living on what they should do. All chants carry a moral message.²³

At death, a particular chant was chosen from the repertoire of existing chants to fit the situation of the deceased. The repertoire includes specific chants: for a young woman who dies while ‘still unripe’, for a profligate young nobleman, for a widow who has raised a family, for a young child, a rich man or an elder. The repertoire also includes general chants for ‘widows and orphans’, which can be modified to fit almost any deceased person. The origin narrative Suti Solo do Bina Bane, for example, with its emphasis on the journey of the two shells, who, as ‘orphans and widows’, spend their time in search of companionship, can be used in Termanu and in other domains as a general-category mortuary chant (see Fox 2016).²⁴

In addition to these mortuary chants, there exists in some domains a related genre of dirges that are chanted to advise and direct the deceased on the journey to the Afterworld (for an example of this genre by the poet Ande Ruy, see Fox 2021: 222–29). The assemblage of the mortuary compositions is extensive, diverse and engaging. It comprehends much more than is included in this volume.

***

The purpose of this volume has been to document, explicate and thus preserve a tradition of oral poetic composition that would probably have otherwise been lost. Preserving this tradition is in fulfilment of a promise made, many years ago, to the knowledge-holders of this tradition.

My intention in this volume has been not just to preserve this tradition but also to situate it within an array of poetic traditions that harken back to the world’s oldest poetry and to indicate how these poetic traditions reverberate with similar oral poetic traditions in some of the world’s major cultural regions.

Although Rote is a tiny island on the margins of South-East Asia, its oral poetry is of world significance. An appreciation of the art of composition by the poets of Rote offers insights into early traditions of poetry elsewhere in the world and may, I hope, contribute to the comparative comprehension of the creative processes involved in such oral achievements.

In this volume, I have also endeavoured to trace the development of new forms of expression within the Rotenese tradition. The poets of Rote have been engaged in both preserving and extending their tradition. Life on Rote has been profoundly transformed from the ancestral past and the island’s poetry, as a living tradition, has been correspondingly affected. On the island, while some poets—always a minority of individuals—have continued to preserve existing traditions, others have become poet–preachers and developed traditions that reveal and proclaim new origins. Most of the island’s finest poets regard all such developments as part of a seamless continuing tradition.

Documenting, explicating and preserving the considerable corpus of Rotenese mortuary chants that form an integral part of this poetic tradition remain the next tasks in my ethnographic efforts.

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1. 1 The archival materials used in this section are found in the National Archives of Indonesia (Arsip Nasional Republik Indonesia), Jakarta, in Archief van de protestantse gemeenten in Batavia en van enige andere protestantse kerken buiten Batavia [The Archives of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the Local Institutions in Batavia (Jakarta)], item no. 161: ‘Timorse aankomende brieven van anno 1627 tot 1736 en Doopboek van anno 1669 tot 1737’. Available from: sejarah-nusantara.anri.go.id/media/userdefined/pdf/BRILLVOCInventaris.pdf, p. 534. I want to thank my colleague Hans Hägerdal, Professor of History at Linnaeus University in Sweden, for alerting me to these various Doop Boeken and sending me digital copies from his own records.

2. 2 Unlike the ruler of Thie, who is referred to as ‘regent’, or the rulers of Loleh, Korbaffo and Landu, who are referred to as ‘radjas’, the ruler of Termanu is referred to as ‘hoofdregent’. Termanu’s ruler was recognised by the Dutch as the chief ruler among all the rulers of Rote. As such, it was appropriate that Gerhard Bernard Visscher as ondercoopman en opperhoofd of the Company’s residence in the Timor area serve as the witness to his baptism. Dynastic politics took a different turn when Ndaomanu Sinlae was forced into exile and another line of succession in Termanu through Fola Sinlae succeeded to rule in the domain (for a discussion of the genealogy of the rulers of Termanu, see Fox 1971a). Rule in Thie remained among the Messak family in the line of Mbura Lai. In Harvest of the Palm (Fox 1977a: 106) is a photograph taken in 1966 of the then ruler of Thie Jeremias Messakh holding the staff of office with its silver crown given to Poura Messa in 1726 by the Dutch East India Company.

3. 3 For clarity, it should be noted that in the dialect of Thie, ‘p’ becomes ‘mb’. Hence ‘Poura Messa’, as represented in Dutch documents, would be better represented as Mbura Mesa; his son’s name, Foe Mbura, follows in genealogical succession: Mbura Mesa > Foe Mbura in the royal clan of Mbura Lai founded by Tola Mesa.

4. 4 These developments are discussed in more detail in Harvest of the Palm (Fox 1977a: 101–12, 128–36).

5. 5 Graafland praised the ruler of Thie but goes on, at some length, to describe the clutter and disorder of the household of the ruler of Termanu, who had previously been a sailor on various Dutch ships and brought back with him the furnishings and manners of his earlier employment.

6. 6 Graafland published his report on the island in two parts, the first entitled ‘Het eiland Rote’ and the second, ‘Eenige aantekeningen op ethnographisch gebied ten aanzien van het eiland Rote’ (‘Some Notes on the Ethnographic Field of the Island of Rote’), in the missionary journal Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsch Zendinggenootschap (Communications of the Dutch Missionary Society) (Vol. 33, 1889: 239–77, 351–75). He also published a German version of ‘Het eiland Rote’ as ‘Die Insel Rote’ in Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena (Communications of the Geographical Society of Jena) (Vol. 8, 1890: 134–68).

7. 7 Le Grand (1900: 363). See also Hägerdal (2013).

8. 8 This 28-line fragment of a mortuary chant originally quoted by Le Grand is translated and published in Fox (2014: 322–23).

9. 9 In a 1934 handwritten account, ‘Sambungan dari Hal Penggambaran Indjil di Poelau Rote’ [Continuation of the Spread of the Gospel on Rote Island]’, one of Le Grand’s former assistants, a graduate of the STOVIL and an ordained minister of many decades, S.J. Meroekh from Thie, recounts his personal involvement in developments during this period. In his account is a list of the 46 graduates (inlandsche leeraar) of the STOVIL on Rote with details of their origins and their postings after graduation. He also provides details on the first cohort of utusan injil.

10. 10 See Heijmering (1843–44: Vol. 5, pp. 542, 544: Vol. 6, pp. 85–89) for a discussion of these manifestations of divinity and their invocation in rituals of birth and death. It is possible that Heijmering confused the Rotenese term mane for mana, in which case, these designations of divinity would be Mana-sulak lai and Mana adu dae.

11. 11 Before my departure at the end of this second period of fieldwork, Malesi led the drumming (bapa) on the night before the Tutus ceremony that I sponsored with Meno’s son to honour the memory of Old Meno (see Fox 2014b).

12. 12 My translation and commentary on Malesi’s recitation is entitled ‘Adam and Eve on the Island of Roti: A Conflation of Oral and Written Traditions’. It was originally presented at a seminar on the transmission of oral traditions at the Humanities Research Centre of The Australian National University in 1981, published in the journal Indonesia (Fox 1983a) and reprinted in Fox (2014: 343–53). In my original translation, I used the past tense. Since, however, there is no tense in Rotenese verbs, the use of the present tense is also possible and perhaps more appropriate in capturing the sense of this recitation. I have therefore translated appropriate passages in the present tense. My intention here is to situate this narrative within the context of the development of Rotenese ritual language in the twentieth century.

13. 13 In 1903, Jonker returned to the Netherlands and was appointed Professor of Javanese at Leiden University, where he continued to publish mainly work on the languages of eastern Indonesia, including both a dictionary (in 1908) and a grammar (in 1915) of Rotenese. Jonker’s ‘Rottineesche Verhalen [Rotenese Tales]’ (with its Rotenese texts, Tutui Lote-la Sudi Leohatakala, by J. Fanggidaej) was published in Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (Contributions to Linguistics, Geography and Ethnology; vol. 58, 1905: 369–464).

14. 14 From a variety of perspectives, J. Fanggidaej’s Sanga Ndolu is a jumble of elements and a confusing conflation of various historical events. Although told in the central dialect of Rote, its details indicate a tale recounted in Thie with many internal references to this domain. It specifically names the ruler of Thie as Foe Mpura (Mbura), the ruler of Loleh as Ndi’i H’ua, the ruler of Ba’a as Toudenga Lilo and the ruler of Dengka as Mone Eli, but the ruler of Termanu is named Tola Manu—a figure in the early history of the domain. The tale mentions that all the slaves taken to Batavia from Thie were captured from the island of Ndana—an island that, according to the narratives of Thie, was inhabited by a gullible non-Rotenese population. Included in the tale is the mention of how a local lord of Thie, while wandering in Batavia, encountered a gin still, copied how it worked and, on his return, created the first native gin on Rote. This incident underlies the often repeated Rotenese assertion that the rulers brought back to Rote two kinds of knowledge: the knowledge of Allah and the knowledge of ala (gin or arak as it is referred to in Malay). Also recounted in the Sanga Ndolu tale is a massacre of the Dutch at Kota Leleuk led by the ruler of Termanu, which occurred in 1748 and at which, according to archival records, the ruler of Thie was also killed. In the tale, the ruler of Thie manages to flee (see Hägerdal 2012: 356–61).

15. 15 This Yubileum was organised by Dr Tom Therik, who worked closely with the preacher-poet Esau Pono from Termanu, whose origin narrative is Recitation IV (Chapter 4) in the Termanu corpus. This is the reason this narrative is in Termanu dialect and has features of known compositions from Termanu. Tom Therik from Bilba was a descendant of Willem Therik, one of the early Rotenese graduates of STOVIL. He was an ordained minister with a PhD in anthropology from The Australian National University and was, for many years, the rector of the Christian university in Kupang on Timor.

16. 16 My translation of this entire mortuary chant, published originally in 2003, can be found in Fox (2014: 283–93). The chant was provided to me by Stefanus Amalo during my first period of fieldwork and Old Meno helped me with its transcription and translation. Esau Pono, who knew of this chant from Termanu, was probably responsible, in part, for the use and elaboration of these icons in this version of Sanga Ndolu ma Tunga Lela. A clear indication of the derivation of this section of Sanga Ndolu ma Tunga Lela from Termanu’s Ndi Loniama ma Laki Elokama is the mention of Dano Hela and Le Kosi, as used in Termanu, for Dana Heo—a key site in Thie.

17. 17 I have previously published passages from this long recitation in Fox (2014: 334–36). Its translation, as I have indicated, has been challenging and I have worked closely with Dr Lintje Pellu in producing this present translation.

18. 18 See ‘To the Aroma of the Name: The Celebration of a Ritual of Rock and Tree’ in Fox 2014: 295–313.

19. 19 The use of a stepwise sequence of lines, rather than coupled lines, is an indication of the poet Ande Ruy’s compositional virtuosity but makes recognition of precise pairings more difficult.

20. 20 Several lines in this passage have curious pairings that may simply be mistakes in recitation—for example, rolu is paired with lole (rather than lela) and soda with loa rather than mole.

21. 21 In Rotenese ritual language, this is fo ela adu nan leo mata boana//ela tao nan leo idu ain (‘to create things as conceived’//‘to make things as indicated’), thus ‘conceived’//‘indicated’ according to a plan—literally: ‘according to the pupils of his eyes’//‘according to the bridge of his nose’.

22. 22 This presentation of eight lines of Ande Ruy’s drumming performance is insufficient to understand or appreciate the full complexity of his art. It is intended to recognise the ‘elevation’ that Ruy accords his recitation and the knowledge it embodies.

23. 23 I have published the translations of three life-course recitations from the collection I recorded from Termanu: 1) Dela Koli ma Seko Buna (Fox 1971b; 2014a: 91–128); Ndi Loniama ma Laki Elokama (Fox 2003; 2014: 283–94); and 3) Kea Lenga ma Lona Balu (Fox 2021). I have also published a translation of an untranslated text originally gathered by the linguist J.C.G. Jonker (1911: 97–102), Manu Kama ma Tepa Nilu (Fox 1988d; 2014a: 229–64), plus the translation of a short mortuary chant from Oenale, Pua Rulis ma No Sanggu (Fox 2023). These illustrative recitations only hint at the beauty and diversity of the repertoire.

24. 24 While in Termanu an origin narrative like Suti Solo do Bina Bane can be modified to render it as a mortuary chant, the chant characters named in Termanu’s life-course recitations do not figure in its origin narratives. In Thie, however, one notorious chant character, Pau Balo and Bola Lunggi—the Don Juan of Rote—makes his way to the Heavens to continue his lovemaking there. In general, however, mortuary chants form a distinct genre from origin narratives.