List of figures
Figure 1.1 Location of excavated sites in western Arnhem Land, relative to land greater than 200 m above sea level (ASL).
Figure 2.1 Location of Wulk Lagoon study area, western Arnhem Land, Northern Territory.
Figure 2.2 Composite rock art phases.
Figure 2.3 Survey area showing location of rock art sites.
Figure 2.4 Types of archaeological materials present at rock art sites (n = 77 sites).
Figure 2.5 Distribution of rock art sites, showing number of artworks in each site.
Figure 2.6 Proportion of sites with each rock art style (n = 77 sites).
Figure 2.7 Proportion of sites with each type of zoomorph (n = 77 sites).
Figure 2.8 Number of paintings by fish taxa.
Figure 2.9 Painting manner for fish, by topographic zone.
Figure 2.10 Proportion of sites with paintings of anthropomorphs and items of material culture (n = 77 sites).
Figure 2.11 Number of paintings by colour, sites MN01, MN05 and MN12.
Figure 2.12 Number of artworks by motif type, sites MN01, MN05 and MN12.
Figure 2.13 Distribution of panel sizes, sites MN01, MN05 and MN12 (n = 65 panels).
Figure 2.14 Frequency of impacts on rock art across 65 rock art panels, sites MN01, MN05 and MN12.
Figure 2.15 Site MN05.
Figure 2.16 Relative frequency of rock art sites and motifs by temporal phase (number of sites = 77; estimated number of motifs = 13,000).
Figure 2.17 Proportion of motifs, panels and sites by topographic zone (number of motifs = 13,000; number of panels = 459; number of sites = 77).
Figure 2.18 Number of rock art sites by phase and topographic zone.
Figure 2.19 Sum of the number of different art styles represented per site, by phase and topographic zone.
Figure 2.20 Example of complex late Holocene art scene, Wulk Lagoon site RLL004.
Figure 3.1 Location of Ingaanjalwurr and other key sites mentioned in this chapter, in relation to topography.
Figure 3.2 View towards Red Lily Lagoon from the escarpment at the rear of Ingaanjalwurr.
Figure 3.3 Ingaanjalwurr rockshelter from the north.
Figure 3.4 An example of the red painted anthropomorphs of Ingaanjalwurr.
Figure 3.5 A white-infilled red-outlined painting (sorcery figure) from Ingaanjalwurr.
Figure 3.6 Digital tracings of photographed beeswax images from Ingaanjalwurr (images are at different scales to each other).
Figure 3.7 Beeswax image of a fish, with arrow indicating location from which Sample 1 was taken.
Figure 3.8 Unidentified beeswax quadruped from Ingaanjalwurr.
Figure 3.9 Painting of a fish with head broken to assist with carrying, Injalak Hill.
Figure 3.10 Single row of beeswax pellets, with arrow indicating location from which Sample 2 was taken.
Figure 4.1 Location of the Djawumbu Madjawarrnja massif in relation to the township of Jabiru and the Jabiluka mineral lease.
Figure 4.2 Four typical spearthrower types recorded during the Mirarr Gunwarddebim project (not to scale).
Figure 4.3 Type A (rectilinear) long-necked spearthrowers from Mirarr Country.
Figure 4.4 Type B (curvilinear) long-necked spearthrowers from Mirarr Country.
Figure 4.5 Type C (concave-sided) and Type D (multi-sided) long-necked spearthrowers from Mirarr Country.
Figure 4.6 Long-necked spearthrowers from other locations as recorded by Brandl (1973), Lewis (1998), Chaloupka (1993) and Welch (1997).
Figure 4.7 Three male figures with morphologically singular long-necked spearthrowers, from Site 20029.
Figure 4.8 Individual human figure with a long-necked spearthrower and goose-wing fan, from site 10041.
Figure 4.9 Group of three male figures, from site 10039.
Figure 4.10 Human-like figure with near-horizontal legs launching a spear with a rectilinear long-necked spearthrower, from site 30116.
Figure 4.11 Group of eight stick-figures holding two types of spearthrowers, engaged in choreographed movement, from site 10040.
Figure 4.12 Human-like figures with a dog-like animal and items of material culture, from site 10041.
Figure 4.13 Two broad spearthrowers.
Figure 4.14 Painting of a concave-sided long-necked spearthrower, from site R10018.
Figure 5.1 Madjedbebe, aerial view, 2012. The rock art can be found at the very base of the rock face.
Figure 5.2 View of Madjedbebe showing the height of the rock face and some key painted panels at its lower levels, 2012.
Figure 5.3 Distribution of key rock art and other archaeological sites mentioned in this chapter.
Figure 5.4 Toby Gangali in 1985.
Figure 5.5 View of some of the painted panels at Madjedbebe, 2012.
Figure 5.6 View of some of the painted panels at Madjedbebe, 2012.
Figure 5.7 Depiction of bundled human bones at Madjedbebe, 2013.
Figure 5.8 Painted hand and forearm stencil from Madjedbebe. The hand was first stencilled, then outlined and infilled.
Figure 5.9 Painting of a firearm from Madjedbebe, one of 16 depicted at the site. This example is shown hanging upside down as though on the side of a horse or across the shoulder of the carrier.
Figure 5.10 European-contact painting featuring a person wearing European-style clothing, smoking a pipe and with oversized gun depicted above head.
Figure 5.11 Example of an X-ray fish painting from Madjedbebe.
Figure 6.1 Dynamic Figures scene from Mirarr Country.
Figure 6.2 Examples of Chaloupka’s four phases of Dynamic Figures from Jabiluka, from left to right representing the oldest to youngest phases.
Figure 6.3 Dynamic Figure from Chaloupka’s Site 124, described as a later Dynamic Figure but not showing any evidence of dotting and with characteristics more consistent with his earlier phases.
Figure 6.4 Map of the Djawumbu-Madjawarna Massif.
Figure 6.5 The second-largest scene of the Jabiluka Dynamic Figures, depicting what appears to be a similar cultural activity as evident in the largest scene.
Figure 6.6 The large central Dynamic Figure is depicted in the Phase 1 style running with spears across its body; other Dynamic Figures are below and above it running yet depicted in Phase 3 style, while the Dynamic Figure to the right has Phase 2 muscular arms.
Figure 6.7 Two scenes of Dynamic Figures.
Figure 6.8 Two examples of Dynamic Figures with material culture objects constructed of dots.
Figure 6.9 A long-arm Dynamic Figure from Mirarr Country.
Figure 7.1 Plan of Red Lily Lagoon Site 3, Area D.
Figure 7.2 Red Lily Lagoon Site 3, Area D Panel 2, highlighting the sequence of rock paintings.
Figure 7.3 Early X-ray attributes, some of which are depicted in Motif 3.
Figure 7.4 Panel 2 showing sample locations for radiocarbon age determinations.
Figure 7.5 Location of samples collected for radiocarbon dating.
Figure 8.1 The painting of the megafauna species Palorchestes that displays two prominent tufts of chest hair and is accompanied by a smaller (younger?) version of the same animal.
Figure 8.2 This painting depicts a predatory quadruped with a distinctively developed head and muzzle region unlike a thylacine. It is suggested that the robust proportions of the head represent a morphology similar to that of the marsupial lion Thylacoleo carnifex.
Figure 8.3 Top: An image of the large, short-faced kangaroo painted in life-like proportions in Kakadu National Park. Bottom: Enhanced image using DStretch. Note the large claw, thick tail and short face of the animal. The large flightless bird mentioned in the text is also plainly visible.
Figure 8.4 The thick tail structure of the kangaroo painted in Figure 8.3, which is unlike the tail of any modern animal and suggests the proportions required to balance the body of a large megafauna macropod. Top: Original image. Bottom: Enhanced image using DStretch.
Figure 8.5 A close-up of the prominent single claw that is a distinct feature of the largest of short-faced kangaroo Procoptodon goliah.
Figure 8.6 The distinct head region of the kangaroo in Figure 8.3 showing the rounded, shortened face structure and long hair on the ears. Left: Original image. Right: Enhanced image using DStretch.
Figure 8.7 A large kangaroo that is a possible representation of Protemnodon(?), painted in the Wellington Range northeast of the Kakadu painting.
Figure 8.8 This animal has a longer face than the Kakadu kangaroo, and other features that might represent one of the long-faced extinct varieties, such as Protemnodon of which there were three species, all believed to exist until after humans arrived (Table 8.1; see also Figure 8.3). Top: Original image. Bottom: Enhanced image using DStretch. Scale 10 cm.
Figure 8.9 The tail is very broad, up to 20 cm wide, and much broader than any extant kangaroo. Scale 10 cm.
Figure 8.10 A close up of the feet of the large kangaroo (Protemnodon?). These feet are quite different from those of the image depicted in Figure 8.5. They are much broader, shorter and show a distinct paw-like morphology absent from the animal in Figure 8.5. Scale 10 cm.
Figure 8.11 The front feet are shown with huge pointed claws. Scale 10 cm.
Figure 8.12 The unidentified ‘flightless’ bird that underlies the large short-faced kangaroo.
Figure 9.1 Location of Jawoyn lands.
Figure 9.2 Distribution of rock art sites with European-contact motifs.
Figure 9.3 Boat A, site ARN-088/6. Scale 10 cm.
Figure 9.4 Boats B–D, site ARN-088/6.
Figure 9.5 Boat E, site ARN-088/6. Left: Original image. Right: DStretch enhancement (ywe15). Scale 10 cm.
Figure 9.6 Overlapping boat motifs, site ARN-088/6. Scale 10 cm.
Figure 9.7 Art panel with European figure, site ARN-107/3. Insert is a photo-tracing of the central figure. Scale 10 cm.
Figure 9.8 European figure with floppy hat and carrying a long object (rifle?), site ARN-019/M.
Figure 9.9 Horse painting, site ARN-074/A.
Figure 9.10 Panel with horse painting showing complex of superimpositions, site ARN-074/A. Head (at far right) and tail (at far left) of horse motif indicated. Scale 10 cm.
Figure 9.11 Site ARN-087/1 showing location of the horse-and-rider painting marked with yellow arrow.
Figure 9.12 Horse-and-rider painting at site ARN-087/1.
Figure 9.13 X-ray fish (barramundi and saratoga) painted with colours similar to those used on the axe painting, site ARN-082/1 (Dalakngalarr 1). Scale 10 cm.
Figure 9.14 Bullock with bell panel, site ARN-031/1.
Figure 9.15 Panel of Bullock with bell, site ARN-031/1. Scale 10 cm.
Figure 9.16 A: SEM-EDX (in secondary electron mode, 15 kV) micrograph of pigment sample from the ‘Jawoyn Lady’. B: SEM-EDX (in secondary electron mode, 15 kV) micrograph of pigment sample from the spotted fish. C: FTIR spectra focused on the 3300–3900 cm-1 region. D: X-ray fluorescence spectrum from the spotted fish sample.
Figure 9.17 Early European travels on and around the Arnhem Land plateau. Leichhardt, Stuart, McKinlay and Lindsay’s routes are plotted from maps and textual details in the explorers’ published journals.
Figure 9.18 Suitcase frame elements from the European-contact period found as surface artefacts at site ARN-129/3.
Figure 9.19 Cat’s-eye marble from the European-contact period found as a surface artefact at site ARN-091/20a.
Figure 9.20 Small metal billy-can from the European-contact period found as a surface artefact at site ARN-116/1.
Figure 9.21 Non-European wooden artefact cut with a metal blade, site ARN-107/12. Scale 10 cm.
Figure 9.22 Non-European wooden spear point cut with metal blade, site ARN-133/29.
Figure 9.23 Non-European bag made from plant fibre, site ARN-110/1. Identified by Margaret Katherine (pers. comm. to Ray Whear 2009) as a bag for washing yams. AMS radiocarbon date Wk-31833 was obtained from a fragment of fibre from this bag.
Figure 9.24 Non-European cache of cord and wooden artefacts, site EVA-12/4. Scale 10 cm.
Figure 9.25 Non-European artefacts made of wood. A: Barbed spear point with radiocarbon date Wk-28114, site ARN-074/A. B: Spearthrower with radiocarbon date Wk-28113, site ARN-074/A. C: Point with adhering resin with radiocarbon date Wk-31834, site ARN-087/1. D: Barbed spear point with radiocarbon dates Wk-28115 and Wk-31835, site ARN-074/A.
Figure 9.26 Distribution of European-contact period and organic artefacts in Jawoyn lands.
Figure 9.27 Proposed chronological sequence of introduced fauna (horse, cattle) motifs in Jawoyn lands. A: Early. B: Intermediate. C: Late.
Figure 10.1 Location of Nawarla Gabarnmang on the Arnhem Land plateau.
Figure 10.2 Aerial photograph of Nawarla Gabarnmang and surrounding features, looking south.
Figure 10.3 Location of rock art panels, with all features mapped on the ceiling.
Figure 10.4 South wall of Squares F+I+L+M, showing sharp and thin interfaces between stratigraphic units in the excavations in progress.
Figure 10.5 Flat rock slab originating from the ceiling, lying horizontally in Square E.
Figure 10.6 The sheltered pillarscape, with senior Jawoyn Elder and Traditional Owner Margaret Katherine.
Figure 10.7 Location of Nawarla Gabarnmang, showing expanses of outcropping rock (orange) and the headwaters of river systems amidst the high basins of the central Arnhem Land plateau.
Figure 10.8 Rockshelter landscape of the western Arnhem Land plateau, Jawoyn Country.
Figure 10.9 Environmental context.
Figure 10.10 The low-lying ‘courtyard’ between Nawarla Gabarnmang and the edge of the rock outcrop to the south.
Figure 10.11 Views of Nawarla Gabarnmang from southern (top) and northern (bottom) entrances, as generated from the laser 3-D model.
Figure 10.12 South–north transect across the open, central-eastern sector of the site, showing Squares C+G+K+N, E+J, and F+I+L+M to their base.
Figure 10.13 Geomorphological map of the ceiling. The zone between the dashed lines delimits the archaeological site studied in this chapter.
Figure 10.14 Rock strata making up the bedrock on the ground, pillar and ceiling levels.
Figure 10.15 Results of XRF core scanner analysis of individual rock strata.
Figure 10.16 Transect across Nawarla Gabarnmang, relative to the basin to the north and the courtyard to the south.
Figure 10.17 Northern edge of the rock outcrop that delimits the southern side of the courtyard, to the south of the site.
Figure 10.18 Different stages in the natural, geological evolution of the pillarscape along the edge of the rock outcrop that delimits the southern side of the courtyard.
Figure 10.19 Different stages in the natural, geological evolution of the pillarscape along the edge of the rock outcrop that delimits the southern side of the courtyard, from thin fissure lines (1), to the weathering of the matrix surrounding the fissures (phantomisation), to the erosion of weathered products leading to the formation of remnant rock (pillars) separated by voids (2–5).
Figure 10.20 Stages in the process of phantomisation and creation of pillarscapes on the Arnhem Land plateau.
Figure 10.21 Nawarla Gabarnmang.
Figure 10.22 Plan of site floor, based on details recorded during on-site archaeomorphological mapping and the 3-D laser model.
Figure 10.23 Nawarla Gabarnmang present ceiling, showing also remnant traces of missing pillars.
Figure 10.24 Southwestern sector, showing two remnant traces of missing pillars on the ceiling.
Figure 10.25 Archaeomorphologial mapping of southwestern sector of Nawarla Gabarnmang.
Figure 10.26 Alcove A of the southwestern sector, showing the horizontal and vertical relationships of features discussed in text.
Figure 10.27 North–south transect across Alcove A in the southwestern sector.
Figure 10.28 North–south transect across Alcove B, southwestern sector, as based on the laser 3-D model. This alcove retains elements of a partially dismantled pillar (including the ‘pillar base’).
Figure 10.29 Photograph and reconstruction of sequence of events in Alcove B, southwestern sector.
Figure 10.30 Strewn rocks on and near a remnant pillar base in Alcove B.
Figure 10.31 Transition zone between Alcoves A and B, and the darker, more close-knit pillar space immediately to the north, showing a toppled pillar on the floor in the mid-ground.
Figure 10.32 Partially removed pillar, with upper parts missing, southwestern sector.
Figure 10.33 Two ways of removing the upper level of pillars prior to toppling, southwest sector of site.
Figure 10.34 Alcove B in southwest sector, showing standing lower sections of pillars with upper sections missing (from laser 3-D model).
Figure 10.35 Area of contiguous Squares F+I+L+M, northwest sector, showing the stratigraphy along the south wall of the excavation against Pillar 20.
Figure 10.36 Area of contiguous Squares F+I+L+M in the 3-D model, northwest sector, showing the natural accumulation of fallen rocks on the ground prior to human arrival (B, C) followed by a more elevated floor caused by the accumulation of aeolian sands and removal of pillar during the period following the first arrival of people (D).
Figure 10.37 Heavily weathered cupules on the western side of Pillar 28.
Figure 10.38 Dynamic Figure carrying boomerangs, Nawarla Gabarnmang.
Figure 10.39 The collapsed rockshelter that once formed the entry way into the courtyard from the southwest of the extant Nawarla Gabarnmang.
Figure 11.1 Detail of the vast rockshelter landscape of the central-western Arnhem Land plateau.
Figure 11.2 Nawarla Gabarnmang, northern entrance.
Figure 11.3 Inside Nawarla Gabarnmang, showing pillared site structure.
Figure 11.4 Map of ceiling of Nawarla Gabarnmang, showing location of Panel E1 relative to other ceiling art panels and excavation squares.
Figure 11.5 Location of Panel E1 within the centre-eastern ceiling.
Figure 11.6 Panel E1.
Figure 11.7 Photo-tracing of Panel E1.
Figure 11.8 Harris Matrix showing pattern of superimpositions for all 82 images of Panel E1.
Figure 11.9 Interpretation of the Panel E1 Harris Matrix, with phases indicated.
Figure 11.10 Phase I images (Layers 14 and 15), Panel E1.
Figure 11.11 Phase II images (yellow = Layer 13) and Phase III images (red = Layer 12), Panel E1.
Figure 11.12 Phase IV images (Layers 9–11), Panel E1.
Figure 11.13 Phase IV images (Layers 7 and 8), Panel E1.
Figure 11.14 Phase IV images #59–#74 (Layers 5–6) and Phase V image #75 (Layer 4), Panel E1.
Figure 11.15 Phase VI images (Layers 1–3), Panel E1.
Figure 11.16 Details of monochrome X-ray fish Image #15.
Figure 11.17 Details of body decoration on ‘Jawoyn Lady’ Image #57.
Figure 11.18 Bula-style turtle, Image #75.
Figure 11.19 Macropod Image #76 in a unique X-ray style variation.
Figure 11.20 Large X-ray barramundi Image #77.
Figure 11.21 X-ray barramundi Image #78.
Figure 11.22 Image #79 painted on a smeared background (B) and subsequently partially over-painted by a second smear (A).
Figure 11.23 Contrasting the differences in brushwork between the underlying (older) fine and overlying (more recent) broad lines of Images #56, #75 and #76.
Figure 11.24 Detail of painting quality of Image #78.
Figure 11.25 Detail of retouching over the stomach pattern of Image #77. A = purple over-paint; arrows highlight underlying orange mesh pattern.
Figure 11.26 Square P before excavation, below painted Panel E1.
Figure 11.27 Square P after completion of excavation showing south and west walls (the green string is the south side of the square). Note the flat rock surface at base.
Figure 11.28 Square P east and south sections, with XUs and radiocarbon dates back-plotted.
Figure 11.29 Square P showing sediments at the base of A: XU16 (average basal depth = 22 cm below ground), a stratigraphic level above that of the dried paint drops; B: XU21 (average basal depth = 28 cm below ground), a stratigraphic level below that of the dried paint drops; C: XU18 (average basal depth = 24 cm below ground), at the stratigraphic level containing the dried paint drops, here visible as lighter-coloured patches.
Figure 11.30 Profile view (top) and interpretation (bottom) of GPR data from the southeast to northwest ends of the rockshelter passing through Square P.
Figure 11.31 Bayesian age model for Square P produced with OxCal v4.2 (see text for discussion).
Figure 11.32 Section drawings of excavation squares, showing the relative depth of pits.
Figure 11.33 3-D projections of excavation squares, from the laser mapping of the site.
Figure 11.34 View of the ceiling (A) and ground (B) levels around Square P, as evident from the 3-D model.
Figure 11.35 Ceiling view of the central-eastern and western parts of Nawarla Gabarnmang, showing the location of Square P.
Figure 11.36 Southwest section of rockshelter, showing remnants of a missing pillar.
Figure 11.37 Edge of the densely pillared, slightly elevated area to the south of the shelter.
Figure 11.38 Projected view of the Nawarla Gabarnmang shelter and the densely pillared edge of the slightly elevated area to the south.
Figure 11.39 Geomorphological reconstitution of the area around Square P.
Figure 11.40 Square P: Distribution of stone artefacts and bone + teeth (excluding a particularly large stone artefact weighing 164.0 g from XU3, to enable better visualisation of the overall distribution down the XU profile).
Figure 11.41 Square P: Raw material distribution by number and by weight.
Figure 11.42 Square P: Distribution of stone artefact types by number.
Figure 11.43 Square P: Formal stone tool types.
Figure 11.44 Square P: Burning composition (by weight) of recovered bones and teeth through the stratigraphic profile.
Figure 11.45 EDX spectrum of light-coloured pigment powder from XU18 in situ sample #4.
Figure 11.46 Square P: Examples of excavated solid coloured pieces showing the range of morphological characteristics, Nawarla Gabarnmang.
Figure 11.47 2-plot diagram representing the major element contents of solid pieces (in % of oxide mass).
Figure 11.48 XRD pattern of a sample of red pigment from XU14 (laboratory sample code: A74PXU14_powder).
Figure 11.49 Raman spectra of a red piece with tiny white specks from XU14 (laboratory code: A74PXU14R).
Figure 11.50 Square P: Number of solid pieces of pigment by colour, by XU.
Figure 12.1 Nawarla Gabarnmang shelter from the northwest.
Figure 12.2 Interior of shelter showing the highly decorated ceiling.
Figure 12.3 Plan showing location of the ceiling art panels. Panels D, F1 and H are highlighted.
Figure 12.4 Photomosaic of Panel F1.
Figure 12.5 Tracing from the photomosaic of the Panel F1 art (colours approximate).
Figure 12.6 Harris Matrix of the Panel F1 superimpositions.
Figure 12.7 Interpretation of the Panel F1 Harris Matrix, grouping the motifs into contemporaneous layers on the basis of stylistic attributes and preservation.
Figure 12.8 Beeswax pellets F-27 to F-30 showing overlying radial designs.
Figure 12.9 Beeswax Pellets F-105 to F-108 overlying painting F-104.
Figure 12.10 Beeswax figure dated to 1660–>1900 cal AD on Panel K4.
Figure 12.11 Photo-tracing of Panel H.
Figure 12.12 Harris Matrix of the Panel H superimpositions.
Figure 12.13 Interpretation and phasing of the Panel H Harris Matrix.
Figure 12.14 Beeswax Image H-122 (arrowed) dated to 1650–>1910 cal AD.
Figure 12.15 Photo-tracing of Panel D.
Figure 12.16 Horse image D-48, likely to represent a horse of the Leichhardt expedition in 1845 (see Chapter 9).
Figure 12.17 Harris Matrix of the Panel D superimpositions.
Figure 12.18 Interpretation and phasing of the Panel D Harris Matrix.
Figure 12.19 Anthropomorphs produced after 1430 cal AD. Beeswax pellets and beeswax figures shown in black.
Figure 12.20 Fish images depicted after 1430 cal AD.
Figure 12.21 Other faunal images depicted after 1430 cal AD.
Figure 12.22 Implements depicted after 1430 cal AD.
Figure 12.23 Non-figurative designs depicted after 1430 cal AD.
Figure 12.24 Polychrome X-ray fish (barramundi) from Panel E1. Scale 10 cm.
Figure 12.25 Bichrome ‘Jawoyn Lady’ from the nearby site A081-11. Scale 10 cm.
Figure 13.1 Dalakngalarr site complex, looking southeast. Yellow rectangle locates Dalakngalarr 1.
Figure 13.2 Plan and cross-sections of Dalakngalarr 1 showing location of rock art panels.
Figure 13.3 Faded, ancient rock art of Panel A5 on eastern wall of Dalakngalarr 1.
Figure 13.4 Evidence of water flow at ground level and along the eastern wall adjacent to Panel A5.
Figure 13.5 Dalakngalarr 1, looking south.
Figure 13.6 Eastern wall showing evidence of ceiling collapse at ground level, looking northwest.
Figure 13.7 Stitched panorama of the western outer wall, looking east-southeast.
Figure 13.8 Western wall in a part of the site well protected from the elements and cool in the afternoon.
Figure 13.9 Shelter interior, looking south.
Figure 13.10 The X-ray paintings that dominate the back wall.
Figure 13.11 Plan of Dalakngalarr 1 showing magnetic intensity, with relative magnetic highs in black and relative magnetic lows in white.
Figure 13.12 View from western side inside the shelter, looking eastward across Square A.
Figure 13.13 Square A (front) and Square B (rear) inside the shelter, prior to excavation.
Figure 13.14 Square A prior to excavation, positioned against the boulder with painted macropod.
Figure 13.15 Rock art on the main ceiling.
Figure 13.16 Staggered ceiling surface, indicating a history of collapse.
Figure 13.17 Square B prior to excavation.
Figure 13.18 Details of metal blade cut marks on hardwood log near Square B.
Figure 13.19 Chris Urwin stringing up Square B prior to excavation.
Figure 13.20 Sorting in progress, excavated materials from Square B XU1.
Figure 13.21 West and north sections of Square A, showing back-plotted XUs.
Figure 13.22 Rocks at base of Square A excavation.
Figure 13.23 East and south sections of Square B, showing back-plotted XUs.
Figure 13.24 Collapsed rock over bedrock at base of Square B.
Figure 13.25 Top: Broken piece of red ochre from Square A XU5. Bottom: Piece of yellow ‘ochre’ from Square A XU6.
Figure 13.26 Digitally enhanced red-painted macropod on boulder at edge of Square A.
Figure 13.27 Evidence of quarrying at Dalakngalarr 1. Scale 10cm.
Figure 13.28 Faunal scat (likely echidna) attached to paperbark in the southwestern corner of Dalakngalarr 1.
Figure 13.29 Southwestern corner of shelter interior, with cleft indicated by red box, standing stone by yellow box, and location of paperbark by blue box.
Figure 13.30 Standing stones in southwestern corner of shelter interior, photograph taken from above. Scale 10 cm.
Figure 13.31 Excavated metal objects and glass bead.
Figure 13.32 Radiograph image of metal objects recovered from Square A XU2 (left, centre) and XU3 (right).
Figure 13.33 Paintings of two axe/hoes with metal heads, Dalakngalarr 1, Panel C1.
Figure 13.34 Evolution of rock stacks on the Arnhem Land plateau.
Figure 13.35 Northwestern section of Dalakngalarr 1, showing the different rock strata referred to in the geomorphological discussion.
Figure 13.36 Geomorphological evolution of Dalakngalarr 1.
Figure 13.37 Beeswax Figure 1. Scale 10 cm.
Figure 13.38 Ceiling panel showing location of Beeswax Figure 1 (in box) and picture numbers from Harris Matrix.
Figure 13.39 Harris Matrix showing chrono-stratigraphic relationship of images for painted ceiling at Dalakngalarr 1.
Figure 13.40 Location of Beeswax Figure 2 (yellow box). Visible portion of scale, 1 cm per black or white square.
Figure 13.41 Red macropod/bird-footed anthropomorph superimposing Beeswax Figure 2, Panel C18.
Figure 13.42 Red macropod/bird-footed anthropomorph beneath Beeswax Figure 2, Panel C18, after DStretch_yrd10 enhancement. Scale 10 cm.
Figure 13.43 Macropod-footed female anthropomorph on ceiling panel that contains Beeswax Figure 1.
Figure 13.44 Close-up of Beeswax Figure 3. Scale units in 1 cm white or black squares.
Figure 13.45 Location of Beeswax Figure 3, in small yellow square near bottom right.
Figure 13.46 Close-up photograph of Beeswax Figure 4. Scale units in 1 cm squares.
Figure 13.47 Panel C4 panorama showing location of Beeswax Figure 4, yellow rectangle.
Figure 13.48 Panel C4 panorama of art panel with Beeswax Figure 4, after DStretch_yre10 enhancement.
Figure 14.1 Massive quartzite boulder stack containing JSARN–113/23 (on left-hand side of boulder) and JSARN–113/19 (overhang, right-hand side of boulder) on opposite sides. Excavations in progress, 2012.
Figure 14.2 Site JSARN–113/23, excavation in progress.
Figure 14.3 Plan of JSARN–113/23.
Figure 14.4 Squares A and B after excavation in 2012.
Figure 14.5 South section with XUs and radiocarbon samples back-plotted.
Figure 14.6 West and north sections of Square A with XUs and radiocarbon samples back-plotted.
Figure 14.7 South wall of Squares A and B after completion of 2011 and 2012 excavations.
Figure 14.8 GPR data and GPR interpretation prior to excavation of Square B.
Figure 14.9 North section of Square B with XUs and radiocarbon samples back-plotted.
Figure 14.10 Location of the GPR transect line superimposed on a photograph of the Squares A and B excavation at a mean Square B excavation depth of 40.9 cm.
Figure 14.11 Squares A and B: Raw weight of charcoal by XU (right-hand graphs, converted to depths).
Figure 14.12 Squares A and B. Standardised weight of charcoal per m2 per 100 years by Burning Phase.
Figure 14.13 Square B: Excavated grindstones.
Figure 14.14 Squares A and B: Distribution of flaked stone artefacts by XU.
Figure 14.15 Squares A and B: Distribution of flaked stone artefacts by depth.
Figure 14.16 Squares A and B. Distribution of flaked stone artefact weight (g)/m2/100 years, by Burning Phase.
Figure 14.17 Squares A and B: Distribution of flaked stone artefacts by raw material, by XU.
Figure 14.18 Squares A and B: Distribution of flaked stone artefacts by raw material weight (g)/m2/100 years by Burning Phase.
Figure 14.19 Squares A and B: Volume of coarse-grained quartzite artefacts by depth.
Figure 14.20 The quartzite flaked piece excavated from Square A XU29 that fits onto the painted rock wall.
Figure 14.21 Digitally enhanced and traced frieze near base of Wall 2.
Figure 14.22 Red ochre crayon from Square A XU26.
Figure 14.23 A: Macro-observation of the red ochre crayon ground surface (Square A XU26). B: Raman spectra obtained on several points on and near the released red particles adhered to the ground surface, confirming the presence of well-crystallised haematite.
Figure 14.24 Location of the three wall sections.
Figure 14.25 Four-level hierarchical classification scheme applied to the rock paintings, showing number of images in each category.
Figure 14.26 Number of determinate paintings by General Motif Form.
Figure 14.27 Echidna (#47) on Wall 1.
Figure 14.28 Two red-outlined and white-infilled flying-foxes (#90, #91), a macropod (#113), a red stick-figure (#92), and seven indeterminate images (#93–#99) on Wall 1.
Figure 14.29 Probable macropod/bandicoot/possum (#76) on Wall 3.
Figure 14.30 White anthropomorphs (#78, #81) and yellow anthropomorph (#89) on Wall 1.
Figure 14.31 Red anthropomorph (#52) on Wall 1.
Figure 14.32 Yellow stick-figure (#61) on Wall 2.
Figure 14.33 Red Ngar-mimi figure (#55) on Wall 2.
Figure 14.34 Red Ngar-mimi figure (#62) on Wall 2. Scale 10 cm.
Figure 14.35 Anthropomorphs with ‘beehive’ headdresses (#66, #71, possibly #70), a hooked stick (#69) and a beeswax figure (#64) on Wall 2.
Figure 14.36 Wall 2: Left: Full hooked stick (#69). Right: Adjacent vertical line that is either a spear – with spearhead above the haft thickening weathered away, probably because it was painted with a more fragile pigment – or a club (#68).
Figure 14.37 Two bichrome anthropomorphs (#40, #41) on Wall 2.
Figure 14.38 Anthropomorphs, spears and non-figurative figures near base of Wall 2.
Figure 14.39 Red anthropomorph (#72) on Wall 3.
Figure 14.40 Non-figurative images (#83, #84) on Wall 1.
Figure 14.41 Non-figurative image (#49) on Wall 1.
Figure 14.42 Beeswax figure (#58) on Wall 2. Scale 10 cm.
Figure 14.43 Beeswax figure (#56) on Wall 2. Scale 10 cm.
Figure 14.44 Hand stencil (#88) on Wall 1.
Figure 14.45 Interpretation of the Harris Matrix for the frieze at the base of Wall 2 immediately above Square A, showing the pattern of superimposed paintings.
Figure 14.46 Digital tracings of the enhancement photograph of the D3/D2 frieze, showing separation of layers of superimposition as determined by the Harris Matrix (Figure 14.45).
Figure 14.47 Bedrock strata, with interpretative cross-section showing the location of where the Square A XU29 flaked piece that fitted the rock surface above was found.
Figure 14.48 Summary interpretation of the development of the site.
Figure 14.49 Graphic summary of the site’s development.
Figure 15.1 JSARN–124 site 3 (bottom right-hand rock stack), excavation of Squares B and D in progress.
Figure 15.2 Northern side of JSARN–124 site 3, showing collapsed overhang at ground level.
Figure 15.3 Profile view and map of JSARN–124 site 3, showing the collapsed overhang and location of excavation squares.
Figure 15.4 Location of art Panel A.
Figure 15.5 Panel A.
Figure 15.6 Photo-tracing of the Panel A images.
Figure 15.7 Detail of the placement of the spear (Image #9), the large bird motif (Image #5) and the large anthropomorph (Image #6) paintings.
Figure 15.8 Location of Panel B.
Figure 15.9 Panel B.
Figure 15.10 Photo-tracing of the Panel B images.
Figure 15.11 Location of Panel C.
Figure 15.12 Panel C.
Figure 15.13 Photo-tracing of the Panel C images.
Figure 15.14 Location of Panel D.
Figure 15.15 Panel D.
Figure 15.16 Photo-tracing of the Panel D images.
Figure 15.17 Location of Panel E.
Figure 15.18 Stitched photograph of Panel E.
Figure 15.19 Photo-tracing of the Panel E images.
Figure 15.20 Panel D, Image #51: The position of sample GN1-9 is marked by the tip of the scalpel blade.
Figure 15.21 Four samples (together comprising GN1-11) from the intersection of the spear painting (Image #9) and large bird motif (Image #5).
Figure 15.22 Cross-sections from Panel A.
Figure 15.23 SEM-EDX (ZEISS-Ultra+, 30 kV) chemical mapping across the cross-section of sample GN1-11.
Figure 15.24 Raman spectra obtained on samples GN1-2, GN1-3, GN1-6 and GN1-8, revealing the presence of haematite (H), goethite (G), quartz (Q) and gypsum (Gy).
Figure 15.25 Main art panel (Panel A), showing collapsed overhang fronting the artworks.
Figure 15.26 Square A after completion of excavation.
Figure 15.27 Square A west and north section drawings, with back-plotted XUs and radiocarbon dates.
Figure 15.28 Distribution of charcoal and stone artefacts by XU, Square A.
Figure 15.29 Mean maximum length and weight distribution of stone artefacts from Square A, by XU.
Figure 15.30 Distribution of stone artefacts by raw material type for Square A, by XU.
Figure 15.31 Square B after completion of excavation.
Figure 15.32 Squares B+E north section drawing, with back-plotted XUs and radiocarbon dates.
Figure 15.33 Distribution of charcoal and stone artefacts by XU, Square B.
Figure 15.34 Mean weight and maximum length of stone artefacts from Square B, by XU.
Figure 15.35 Number (A) and weight (B) of stone artefacts by raw material type for Square B, by XU.
Figure 15.36 Square C after completion of excavation.
Figure 15.37 Square C west and north section drawings, with back-plotted XUs and radiocarbon dates.
Figure 15.38 Distribution of charcoal and stone artefacts by XU, Square C.
Figure 15.39 Number (A) and weight (B) of stone artefacts by raw material type for Square C, by XU.
Figure 15.40 Mean weight of stone artefacts from Square C, by XU.
Figure 15.41 Square D, showing in situ termite nest at base of excavation.
Figure 15.42 Square D north section with back-plotted XUs and radiocarbon dates.
Figure 15.43 Distribution of charcoal and stone artefacts by XU, Square D.
Figure 15.44 Number (A) and weight (B) of stone artefacts by raw material type for Square D, by XU.
Figure 15.45 Mean weight and maximum length of stone artefacts from Square D, by XU.
Figure 15.46 Square E after completion of excavation.
Figure 15.47 Ground penetrating radar work in progress in the area within and surrounding Square E, prior to excavation.
Figure 15.48 Distribution of charcoal and stone artefacts by XU, Square E.
Figure 15.49 Distribution of stone artefacts by raw material type for Square E, by XU.
Figure 15.50 Mean weight and maximum length of stone artefacts from Square E, by XU.
Figure 15.51 South and north-northwest faces of the rock stack at JSARN–124 site 3, showing the contrasting textures of the rock surfaces. Rock art Panels A–D are shown on those surfaces.
Figure 15.52 Excavation Squares B+E (western side) and Square C (eastern side), viewed from south side of the rock stack.
Figure 15.53 Location of Square A in relation to Panel B and the detached stratum D8 slab (outlined in white-dashed line) that was moved by people to its present position immediately to the north of Square A.
Figure 15.54 The dotted horizontal white lines represent the level of the flat rock surfaces at the base of Squares C and E.
Figure 15.55 Evolution of the overhang above Squares B+E, showing the build up of sediments as evidenced from the north section of those two excavation squares.
Figure 15.56 Northwestern corner of the rock stack showing location of Square D relative to nearby collapsed blocks and ceiling of present overhang immediately overhead.
Figure 15.57 Western side of JSARN–124 site 3, in the vicinity of Squares B+E and Square D (laser mapping undertaken when Squares B+E pits were open).
Figure 15.58 The JSARN–124 site 3 rock stack before and after the overhang collapses that resulted in the creation of the flat, vertical rock surfaces of Panels A–E.
Figure 15.59 Summary chronological schema for JSARN–124 site 3.
Figure 15.60 Collapse of northwestern overhang, resulting in the shown extant smooth vertical rock faces of Panels A, D and E.
Figure 15.61 Zoomorphs painted with shared artistic conventions, or similar and apparently shared conventions, at JSARN–124 site 3.
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