List of figures

Figure 1.1. Map of study area.

Figure 1.2. The stronghold of Sauo.

Figure 1.3. Massive limestone rubble walls, Vero Valley, with Andrew McWilliam.

Figure 1.4. Grave and sacrificial platform at Masui.

Figure 1.5. Manatuto.

Figure 2.1. Location of Macapainara.

Figure 2.2. ‘Batu Makassar’ flat circular stone at Ili Vali with upright stone next to it. Both are shaped from a fine-grained sedimentary rock.

Figure 2.3. Double grave at Macapainara.

Figure 2.4. Chinese Blue and White tradeware.

Figure 2.5. South section of Squares C and D, Macapainara, showing stratigraphic units.

Figure 2.6. Glass and shell beads from Macapainara (sample).

Figure 2.7. Decorated sherds from Macapainara.

Figure 2.8. Recognised Macapainara vessels with sherds from separate spits.

Figure 2.9. Macapainara jar rim shapes.

Figure 2.10. Vertical distribution of stone artefacts in each square relative to spit.

Figure 2.11. Margins of typical chert retouched flakes, thought to be strike-a-light tools.

Figure 2.12. Distribution of Macapainara vertebrate faunal remains, and associated weathering (NISP).

Figure 2.13. Total shell weight from Macapainara Squares A, C and D (g).

Figure 2.14. Worked and utilised sea shells from Macapainara.

Figure 2.15. Worked Rochia, Tectus and Turbo shells.

Figure 2.16. Conomurex luhuanus shell spindle whorls.

Figure 2.17. Bone artefacts.

Figure 3.1. Map of the Ira Ara site.

Figure 3.2. Ira Ara south mound edge showing disturbed section, July 2005.

Figure 3.3. The Ira Ara sikua, with spring pool and mound in background, July 2004.

Figure 3.4. Ira Ara northeast section of Units 2 and 3 (Burials 1 and 2).

Figure 3.5. Plan view of Ira Ara Burials 1 and 2.

Figure 3.6. Earthenware pot from Ira Ara Burial 1.

Figure 3.7. Ira Ara Burial 2 showing position of groundstone artefact and fragmented earthenware pot and lid.

Figure 3.8. Dice from Ira Ara Burial 2.

Figure 3.9. Selected lithic artefacts from Ira Ara.

Figure 3.10. Relative frequency of lithic artefact types from Ira Ara.

Figure 4.1. Location of Vasino and other fortified sites in Timor-Leste.

Figure 4.2. Vasino walls and prickly pear.

Figure 4.3. Vasino batu Makassar grave.

Figure 4.4. Vasino plan of fortifications and features.

Figure 4.5. Vasino carved wooden pole (tei or ete uru ha’a).

Figure 4.6. Vasino Square A section drawing.

Figure 4.7. Vasino Squares C and D section drawing.

Figure 4.8. Vasino Squares E, F and G section drawing.

Figure 4.9. Vasino Square H: photo of section.

Figure 4.10. Vasino radiocarbon dates (excludes shell-based dates).

Figure 4.11. Vasino Bayesian model.

Figure 4.12. Vasino earthenware pottery rims.

Figure 4.13. Vasino earthenware reconstructible contours.

Figure 4.14. Vasino distribution of vertebrate remains Squares A–H (NISP).

Figure 4.15. Vasino top 10 shell taxa by MNI and weight (g).

Figure 4.16. Vasino shellfish habitat by MNI (FW=Freshwater).

Figure 5.1. Timor-Leste map showing the location of Leki Wakik.

Figure 5.2. Leki Wakik site plan view.

Figure 5.3. Leki Wakik circular stone arrangements.

Figure 5.4. Typical view of Leki Wakik in August 2011.

Figure 5.5. Leki Wakik large black slab stone considered sacred by Laleia villagers.

Figure 5.6. Leki Wakik magnetometry grid locations.

Figure 5.7. Leki Wakik Test Pits A and C in the northern area of site.

Figure 5.8. Leki Wakik Test Pit A section drawing.

Figure 5.9. Leki Wakik southeastern excavation area.

Figure 5.10. Leki Wakik Test Pit B profile drawing.

Figure 5.11. Leki Wakik Test Pit B calibrated marine shell and charcoal radiocarbon dates.

Figure 5.12. Leki Wakik Test Pit C section drawing.

Figure 5.13. Leki Wakik Test Pit D section drawing.

Figure 5.14. Leki Wakik Test Pit E section drawing.

Figure 5.15. Leki Wakik lithics counts (A) and weights (B) by test pit.

Figure 5.16. Leki Wakik examples of decorated sherds.

Figure 5.17. Leki Wakik rim type 1.

Figure 5.18. Leki Wakik cumulative artefact weight per spit.

Figure 5.19. Leki Wakik artefact weight density per spit.

Figure 5.20. Leki Wakik tradeware density by test pit.

Figure 7.1. South Sulawesi: main topographical features and language boundaries.

Figure 7.2. South Sulawesi hilltop settlements with and without evidence of fortifications.

Figure 7.3. South Sulawesi fortifications (excluding fortified hilltop sites).

Figure 7.4. Time chart of South Sulawesi’s dated fortifications.

Figure 7.A1. Cross-section and plans for Benteng Kale Goa and Anaq Goa.

Figure 7.A2. ‘Dutch sketch of Goa c. 1776’ (above) compared to relevant data from Bulbeck’s (1992) survey of Kale Goa (below).

Figure 7.A3. Plan of Benteng Baebunta, Luwu (theodolite and staff survey).

Figure 7.A4. Plan of Benteng Matano, Luwu (theodolite and staff survey).

Figure 8.1. A steep section of the route to Fort Koncu.

Figure 8.2. The remaining wall structure of Fort Koncu on the eastern side.

Figure 8.3. Wa Kaa Kaa’s grave.

Figure 8.4. An etched rock said to have been the place of royal agreement.

Figure 8.5. Limestone arrangement in the shape of a ring thought to symbolise the centre of the world.

Figure 8.6. The ruins of the wall structure of Fort Liwu.

Figure 8.7. One of the corner bastions of Fort Liwu.

Figure 8.8. One of the ancient cannons in Fort Liwu now placed on the coast at Wabula.

Figure 8.9. One of the ancient tombs inside Fort Liwu.

Figure 8.10. Plan of Fort Liwu in Wabula.

Figure 8.11. The former mihrab (a niche in the wall of a mosque) inside Fort Liwu, which also functioned as a tomb.

Figure 8.12. One of the gates into Fort Kombeli on the western side.

Figure 8.13. The restored tomb of one of the Parabela.

Figure 8.14. Fort Kombeli tomb made of coral rock.

Figure 8.15. Plan of Fort Takimpo.

Figure 8.16. Fort Takimpo walls.

Figure 8.17. Main gateway into Fort Takimpo.

Figure 8.18. Mosque inside Fort Takimpo.

Figure 8.19. The inauguration stage in Fort Takimpo.

Figure 9.1. Fort Kaledupa.

Figure 9.2. Kaledupa Mosque.

Figure 9.3. Fort Liya.

Figure 9.4. Fort Liya.

Figure 10.1. Area of southern Maluku and eastern Timor where fortified villages are concentrated (shaded blue).

Figure 10.2. Layers of stone walls leading up to the gate of a fortified village in the mountains of the Kei Island.

Figure 10.3. The thick, more than 2 m high lutur, or stone wall, that made up the base of mosque of the old Ujir village and which doubled as a fortification, located strategically at the water’s edge.

Figure 10.4. Remains of the stone wall around Omtufu village, Yamdena, Tanimbar Islands c. 1920.

Figure 10.5. One of the entry gates to Omtufu village, Yamdena, Tanimbar Islands c. 1903, shown in use with palisading of sharpened stakes and two guards standing off to the gate’s left.

Figure 10.6. The landward gate of Wakpapapi, Babar, Babar Islands, with a steep ladder leading up to the palisaded stone wall.

Figure 10.7. Gate over the stone wall of Lawawang village, Marsela, Babar Islands.

Figure 10.8. Stone wall palisaded with bamboo around Latalola village, Marsela, Babar Islands.

Figure 10.9. A Letinese walled village in the top right-hand corner of the frontispiece of Barchewitz (1751).

Figure 10.10. Hilltop fortified village on Luang Island.

Figure 10.11. Wulur village on Damar island enclosed by a stone wall visible behind villagers.

Figure 10.12. Distribution of #lutuR in Southeastern Wallacea.

Figure 11.1. Map showing survey locations.

Figure 11.2. Map showing the location of identified fort sites in Sumba Barat (West Sumba).

Figure 11.3. Paletirua fortified village.

Figure 11.4. Map of fortified sites located in Timor-Leste.

Figure 11.5. Ainaro survey at Subago.

Figure 11.6. Views towards Manatuto from the remains of the Sau Huhun fortification, showing its defensive position.

Figure 11.7. Sau Huhun fortification.

Figure 11.8. Iliheu Tatua hill.

Figure 11.9. Mapulu Ro Malae.

Figure 11.10. Maiana tomb.

Figure 11.11. Ili Kere Kere, a small overhang on a sheer cliff face in the Tutuala area with stone wall and dancers.

Figure 11.12. Map showing the location of identified fort sites on Kisar island.

Figure 11.13. The view from Loi Puru Ula looking north (left) towards the Pur Pura Negeri Lama (KSR 49—indicated), and the view from the Pur Pura Negeri Lama south towards Loi Puru Ula (KSR 68 and 69).

Figure 11.14. The Pur Pura Negeri Lama (KSR 49) showing the significant heights of the walls (A, D); extensive stonework (B) and chambers within the main wall dividing the headland (C).

Figure 11.15. Fallen megalithic standing stones from the old Pur Pura village complex (KSR 50), located within the Pur Pura Negri Lama fortifications (KSR 49).

Figure 11.16. Cave (KSR 54) (A) below the Pur Pura Negri Lama containing carved timber post (B).

Figure 11.17. Loi Puru Ula 1 (KSR 68) fortified rock-shelter with altar (A: viewer’s left) and rock wall from base of cliff to the lip of the shelter floor, forming a staircase for access to the site (A: viewer’s right). The rock-shelter has a commanding view of the plain below (B).

Figure 11.18. Loi Puru Ula 2 (KSR 69) showing the paved extended shelter floor (A) and stone wall with gate separating the different shelters along the terrace (B).

Figure 11.19. Nomaha Negeri Lama (KSR 72) view from plain looking north-northwest to the hilltop where the fortification is located (A), and the view of the stone wall looking north (B).

Figure 11.20. Jawalang Selatan Kota Lama 1 (KSR 81) showing stone wall with entrance (A) and the commanding view of the plain to the south-southeast (B).

Figure 11.21. Sokon (KSR 87) fortification showing stone walls following the ridge (A) with ‘z’-shaped constructions (B, in detail).

Figure 11.22. Jawalang Selatan Kota Lama 2 (KSR 106).

Figure 11.23. Map showing the location of identified fort sites on the islands of Wetang and Babar Besar. Sites are numbered based on Kealy et al. (2018) (see also Table 11.4).

Figure 11.24. Kukeweble Negeri Lama (#61) showing the high (A), thick (B) surrounding wall constructed of a mix of medium to very large stones (C). In the centre of the Negeri Lama was a circular stone altar under the shade of a Banyan tree (D).

Figure 11.25. Wulua Negeri Lama (#48) showing narrow stone staircase leading to the gateway on the cliff edge (A), and stone arrangements surrounding the gateway with its commanding view over the plain below (B).

Figure 11.26. Wulyeni Negeri Lama (#56) showing stone stair for entrance (A), circular stone wall (B and D), and stone tools located inside (C).