Figures

Figure 1.1 GDP growth rates, 1975–2016

Figure 1.2 Consumption and investment, 2000–15

Figure 1.3 Sector shares in total GDP, 1978–2016

Figure 1.4 China’s export share in GDP, 1978–2016

Figure 1.5 Share of China’s trade surpluses in GDP, 1994–2016

Figure 1.6 Shares of China’s GDP and trade in global totals, 1978–2014 (2010 constant US$)

Figure 1.7 Decomposition of China’s GDP growth, 1995–2015

Figure 1.8 University students per 100 population, 1978–2014

Figure 1.9 China’s shares of R&D and total education expenditure in GDP, 1991–2015

Figure 1.10 Number of patent applications, 1995–2015 (million)

Figure 2.1 Trends in the relative size of state-owned assets (as percentage of total assets in the corporate sector)

Figure 2.2 China’s sovereign assets, liabilities and net worth (RMB trillion)

Figure 2.3 International comparison of China’s net worth structure, 2015 (per cent)

Figure 2.4 Supply-side structural reform and growth scenarios

Figure 3.1 Quarterly GDP growth in China, 2007–16 (percentage year-on-year)

Figure 3.2 Monthly growth of fixed-asset investment in property, infrastructure and manufacturing, 2007–16 (percentage year-on-year)

Figure 3.3 Monthly growth of property prices for groups of cities, 2007–16 (per cent)

Figure 3.4 Monthly PPI and CPI, 2007–16 (per cent)

Figure 3.5 Consumption share of GDP, 2000–15 (per cent)

Figure 3.6 NEI industries and their shares

Figure 3.7 NEI (left-hand side) (per cent) and PMI in China

Figure 3.8 Capital, labour and technology subindices

Figure 3.9 NEI (left-hand side) and month-on-month value-added growth rate (per cent)

Figure 3.10 NEI (left-hand side) and month-on-month growth rate of infrastructure investment (per cent)

Figure 3.11 Commercial banks’ average NPL ratio (per cent)

Figure 3.12 China’s leverage ratios (percentage of GDP)

Figure 3.13 Provincial GDP growth of Guangdong, Jiangsu, Liaoning and Heilongjiang, 2007–16 (per cent)

Figure 4.1 Real GDP per capita (RMB100 per capita)

Figure 4.2 Growth rates of real GDP per capita

Figure 4.3 Growth rates of real investment per capita

Figures 4.4a–d Forecast investment growth rates

Figures 4.5a–d Forecast growth rates of GDP per capita

Figure 4.6 Common-parameter estimation versus heterogeneous-parameter estimation

Figures 4.7a–c Effects of regional convergence

Figures 4.8a–c Effects of the convergence of technological progress

Figure 6.1 Years of schooling across two generations, 1940–89

Figure 6.2a Educational attainment, urban China (per cent)

Figure 6.2b Educational attainment, rural China (per cent)

Figure 6.3 Inequality of educational outcomes by cohort

Figure 6.4 Nationwide trends in inequality of outcome and inequality of opportunity

Figure 6.5 Share of inequality of opportunity in inequality of outcome (IOR)

Figure 8.1 Patent approval rates in BRICS countries, South Korea and the United States

Figure 8.2 Invention patents granted by the USPTO for different countries

Figure 8.3 Citations of invention patents granted by the USPTO: Cross-country comparison

Figure 8.4 Ratio of subsidies to sales by firm ownership and size

Figure 8.5 Patent intensity by firm’s export status

Figure 8.6 Patent intensity by firm’s capital intensity

Figure 8.7 Export quality: Conditional plot of export market shares in selected countries

Figure 8.8 Tax rate by firm ownership and size

Figure 8.9 Net tax rate by firm ownership and size

Figure 10.1 Moran’s I index of China’s regional per capita GDP, 2001–15

Figure 10.2 Four indicators of the gap in regional economic development

Figure 12.1 China’s expenditure on research and development (renminbi)

Figure 12.2 Researchers in research and development in China

Figure 12.3 Research and development institutions in China

Figure 13.1 Output, input and TFP index in Chinese agriculture, 1961–2013

Figure 13.2 Comparison of agricultural TFP growth in China and the rest of the world, 1961–2013

Figure 13.3 Change in input components of agricultural production (US$ million at 2004–06 price)

Figure 13.4 Relationship between the capital–labour ratio and agricultural productivity, 1961–2013

Figure 13.5 Relationship between logarithm of yield and capital–labour ratio between countries, 1961–2013

Figure 13.6 Variations in instances of land reallocation

Figure 13.7 Relationship between relative labour–land productivity and farm size, 2000–13

Figure 13.8 Distribution of farm size (by land area) in north-east and northern China: 2003, 2008 and 2013

Figure 13.9 Farmland ploughed, sown and harvested using machinery, 1979–2013 (per cent)

Figure 13.10 Agricultural tractors, attached equipment and total machinery power per capita in China, 1978–2014

Figure 13.11a Engine power of large tractors and equipment in use, by size: 1978–2014 (billion watts)

Figure 13.11b Total agricultural machinery in use, by size: 1978–2014 (million)

Figure 13.12 Average farm size in China, 1985–2013

Figure 13.13 The number of communities providing mechanisation services in China, 2008–13

Figure 13.14 Structure of contract mechanisation services, 2013

Figure 13.15 Farm size–crop productivity in China, 2013 (hectares)

Figure 13.16 Farm size–profitability relationship in China

Figure 13.17 Cost per hectare and area harvested of using contracted services from combined service enterprises

Figure 14.1 Newly installed capacity for selected renewable energy generation in China (gigawatts (GW))

Figure 14.2 Global and selected countries’ renewable power capacity

Figure 14.3 Global and selected countries’ installed capacity of hydropower

Plate 14.1 Fenghuangshan wind power plant

Figure 14.4 Planned and realised installed offshore wind power capacity in China

Plate 14.2 Satellite image of Delingha solar PV project in Qinghai province

Figure 14.5 Primary energy demand in China under the global 2ºC target

Figure 14.6 Installed capacity in China under the 2ºC scenario

Figure 14.7 Power generation in China under the 2ºC scenario

Figure 15.1 Chinese repo turnover (annual, by market)

Figure 15.2 Lending balance outstanding (by market)

Figure 15.3 Collateral used in repurchase agreements (interbank, pledged collateral, percentage of monthly turnover by value)

Figure 15.4 Chinese interbank repo market (monthly turnover)

Figure 15.5 Chinese interbank repo rates (by tenor)

Figure 15.6 Outstanding repo lending balance (interbank, pledged collateral, by type of institution)

Figure 15.7 Outstanding repo borrowing balance (interbank, pledged collateral, by type of institution)

Figure 15.8 Net outstanding repo lending balance (interbank, pledged collateral, by type of institution)

Figure 15.9 Chinese repo rate (seven-day repo fixing rate, daily)

Figure 15.10 Policy bank and PBC repo lending (interbank, pledged collateral)

Figure 15.11 PBC liquidity injections and withdrawals (open market operations, net)

Figure 15.12 Bond and repo rates (daily, on-the-run bond)

Figure 15.13 Repo turnover (interbank, monthly, pledged collateral, by tenor)

Figure 16.1 China’s manufacturing exports, 1992–2015 (US$ billion)

Figure 16.2 China’s share in global manufacturing exports, 1992–2015 (per cent)

Figure 16.3 Producer-driven, buyer-driven and total global network exports from China, 1992–2015 (US$ billion)

Figure 16.4 China: Imports of parts and components relative to exports of parts and components and assembled products (per cent)

Figure 16.5a China’s exports to the United States, 2000–16 (US$ billion)

Figure 16.5b China’s imports from the United States, 2000–16 (US$ billion)

Figure 16.5c China’s trade surplus with the United States, 2000–16 (US$ billion)

Figure 16.6a Shares of exports of parts and components and final assembly products in total GPN product exports, 2000–16 (US$ billion)

Figure 16.6b Shares of buyer-driven and producer-driven products in GPN product exports, 2000–16 (US$ billion)

Figure 18.1 Per capita arable land area of BRI countries (hectare per person)

Figure 18.2 Per capita water resources of BRI countries (million cubic metres per person)

Figure 18.3 Distribution of total oil production of BRI countries (100 million toe)

Figure 18.4 Distribution of natural gas production of BRI countries (toe)

Figure 18.5 Trade tightness between one EEU country and the other four EEU countries

Figure 18.6 China’s direct investment in EEU countries, 2003–15 (US$100 million)

Figure 18.7 China–Europe Express Railways: Chongqing–Europe line, Wuhan–Europe line and Chengdu–Europe line

Figure 18.8 Sources of China’s oil imports

Figure 19.1 China’s net foreign aid (estimates)

Figure 19.2 China’s foreign aid by recipient region